SCIENCE AND SCIENTISTS OF MEDIEVAL INDIA
Introduction of Maktabs and Madrasas:
- Shift in Educational Pattern: The medieval period in India saw the influence of Muslim rulers, leading to changes in the traditional indigenous classical learning.
- Adoption of Arab Educational Model: Educational institutions like Maktabs and Madrasas emerged during this period, adopting the educational model prevalent in Arab countries.
- Royal Patronage: These institutions received royal patronage, and a set curriculum was followed.
Contribution of Learned Scholars:
- Sheikh Abdullah and Sheikh Azizullah: Two brothers, Sheikh Abdullah and Sheikh Azizullah, who specialized in rational science, headed madrasas in Sambal and Agra.
- Influence of Scholars from Arabia, Persia, and Central Asia: Learned men from Arabia, Persia, and Central Asia were invited to India to contribute to education in madrasas.
Curricular Reforms:
- Attempted Curriculum Reforms: Muslim rulers attempted to reform the curriculum of primary schools.
- Inclusion of Diverse Subjects: Primary education included subjects such as Arithmetic, Mensuration, Geometry, Astronomy, Accountancy, Public Administration, and Agriculture.
- Synthesis of Traditional and Medieval Approaches: Efforts were made to synthesize Indian traditional scientific culture with the prevailing medieval approach to science in other countries.
Scientific Developments and Karkhanas:
- Establishment of Karkhanas: Large workshops called karkhanas were maintained, supplying provisions, stores, and equipment to the royal household and government departments.
- Centres for Technical and Vocational Training: Karkhanas served as centres for technical and vocational training, imparting skills to young individuals.
- Artisan Training: Young people trained in karkhanas later established their independent karkhanas.
- Diverse Fields: Karkhanas covered various branches, fostering skills in different crafts and trades.
1. Mathematics
- Several works in the field of Mathematics were produced during this period.
- Narayana Pandit, son of Narsimha Daivajna was well known for his works in Mathematics – Ganitakaumudi and Bijaganitavatamsa.
- Gangadhara, in Gujarat, wrote Lilavati Karamdipika, Suddhantadipika , and Lilavati Vyakhya. These were famous treatises which gave rules for trigonometrical terms like sine, cosine tangent and cotangent.
- Nilakantha Somasutvan produced Tantrasamgraha, which also contains rules of trigonometrical functions.
- Ganesa Daivajna produced Buddhivilasini – a commentary on lilavati – containing a number of illustrations.
- Krishna of the Valhalla family brought out Navankura on the Bijaganit of Bhaskara-II and elaboration of the rules of indeterminate equations of the first and second orders.
- Nilakantha Jyotirvida compiled Tajik, introducing a large number of Persian technical terms.
- Faizi, at the behest of Akbar, translated Bhaskara’s Bijaganit. Akbar ordered to make Mathematics as a subject of study, among others in the education system .
- Naisiru’d –din-at –tusi, was another scholar of Mathematics.
2. Biology
- Hamsadeva compiled a work in the field of Biology entitled Mrga-paksi-sastra in the thirteenth century. This gives a general, though not always scientific, account of some animals and birds of hunting.
- Both Babur and Akbar, in spite of being busy in their political preoccupations and war, found time to study the work. Akbar had a special interest in producing good breeds of domestic animals like elephants and horses.
- Jahangir, in his work – Tuzuk-ijahangiri – recorded his observations and experiments on breeding and hybridization. He described about 36 species of animals. His court artists, specially, Mansur, produced elegant and accurate portraitures of animals.
- Some of these are still preserved in several museums and private collections. As a naturalist, Jahangir was also interested in the study of plants. His court artists have drawn around 57 plants in their floral portraitures.
3. Chemistry
- An important application of Chemistry was in the production of paper. Kashmir, Sialkot, Zafarabad, Patna, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad and Mysore became well known centres of paper production.
- The paper making technique was more or less the same throughout the country differing only in preparation of the pulp from different raw materials.
- The Mughals knew the technique of production of gunpowder and its use in gunnery, another application of Chemistry. The Indian craftspersons learnt the technique in evolved suitable explosive composition.
- The work Sukraniti attributed to Sukracarya contains a description of how gunpowder can be prepared using saltpeter, sulphur and charcoal in different ratios for use in different types of guns.
- The principal type of fire works included those which pierce through air, produce sparks of fire, blaze with various colours and end with explosion.
- The work Ain –I-akbari speaks of the regulation of the Perfume office of Akbar. The attar (perfume) of roses was a popular perfume, which is supposed to have been discovered by Nurjehan.
4. Astronomy
- Astronomy was another field that flourished during this period. In astronomy, a number of commentaries dealing with the already established astronomical notions appeared.
- Mehendra Suri, a court astronomer of Emperor Firoz Shah, developed an astronomical, instrument ‘Yantraja’.
- Paramesvara and Mahabhaskariya, both in Kerala, were famous families of astronomers and almanac-makers.
- Nilakantha Somasutvan produced commentary of Aryabhatiyaa.
- Kamalakar studied the Islamic astronomical ideas. He was an authority on Islamic knowledge.
- Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh-II of Jaipur was a patron of Astronomy. He set up the five astronomical observatories in Delhi, Ujjain, Varansasi, Mathura and Jaipur.
5. Medicine
- The Ayurveda system of medicine did not progress as vigorously as it did in the ancient period because of lack of royal patronage. However, some important treatises on Ayurveda like the Sarangdhara Samhita and Chikitsasamgraha by Vangasena, the Yagaratbajara and the Bhavaprakasa of Bhavamisra were compiled.
- The Sarangdhara Samhita, written in the thirteenth century, includes use of opium in its material medica and urine examination for diagnostic purpose. The drugs mentioned include metallic preparation of the rasachikitsa system and even imported drugs.
- The Rasachikitsa system, dealt principally with a host of mineral medicines, both mercurial and non-mercurial. The Siddha system mostly prevalent in Tamil Nadu was attributed to the reputed Siddhas, who were supposed to have evolved many life-prolonging compositions, rich in mineral medicines.
- The Unani Tibb system of medicine flourished in India during the medieval period. Ali-binRabban summarized the whole system of Greek medicine as well as the Indian medical knowledge in the book, Firdausu-Hikmat.
- The Unani medicine system came to India along with the Muslims by about the eleventh century and soon found patronage for its growth. Hakim Diya Muhammad compiled a book, Majiny-e-Diyae, incorporating the Arabic, Persian and Ayurvedic medical knowledge.
- Firoz Shah Tughalaq wrote a book, Tibbe Firozshahi. The Tibbi Aurangzebi, dedicated to Aurangzeb, is based on Ayurvedic sources.
- The Musalajati-Darshikohi of Nuruddin Muhammad, dedicated to Darashikoh, deals with Greek medicine and contains, at the end, almost the whole of Ayurvedic material medica.
6. Agriculture
- During the medieval period in India, agriculture underwent notable changes while retaining some traditional practices. The cultivation of staple crops such as wheat, rice, barley, millets, pulses, oilseeds, cotton, sugar-cane, and indigo persisted.
- Foreign traders introduced new crops and horticultural plants, enhancing crop diversity. Specific regions maintained their reputation for producing certain commodities, like the Western Ghats for high-quality black pepper and Kashmir for saffron and fruits.
- The introduction of tobacco, chillies, potato, guava, and other plants occurred during this period. Horticultural methods improved, with innovations like systematic mango-grafting by Jesuits in Goa.
- The State played a role in solidifying agriculture by introducing land measurement and classification systems, benefitting both rulers and farmers.
- Irrigation techniques, including wells, tanks, canals, and various devices, supported agricultural activities. Overall, medieval agriculture in India saw a blend of traditional and introduced practices, contributing to a more organized and diverse farming landscape.
