APPSC Current Affairs October 7th 2026

Why in News?

• Short-Lived Climate Pollutants (SLCPs) are responsible for up to 45% of present global warming and also contribute significantly to air pollution.
• According to the IPCC, rapid reduction of SLCPs can potentially avoid up to 0.6°C of warming by 2050.
• Reducing SLCP emissions can provide immediate benefits through cleaner air, improved public health, higher crop yields and slower Himalayan glacier loss. ipcc.ch

What are Short-Lived Climate Pollutants?

Short-Lived Climate Pollutants are atmospheric pollutants that remain in the atmosphere for a shorter period than carbon dioxide but have a strong influence on near-term global warming.

They are also called:

• Super pollutants
• Short-Lived Climate Forcers

While carbon dioxide can remain in the atmosphere for hundreds of years, many SLCPs remain for a few days to a few decades.

Major Warming SLCPs

• Black carbon
• Methane
• Tropospheric ozone
• Hydrofluorocarbons

Other short-lived climate forcers include aerosols such as sulphate, nitrate, ammonium, mineral dust and sea spray.

However, all short-lived climate forcers do not cause warming. For example:

• Black carbon absorbs heat and causes warming.
• Sulphate aerosols reflect sunlight and produce a temporary cooling effect.

Therefore, SLCP mitigation must be scientifically planned and combined with deep reductions in carbon dioxide emissions. ipcc.ch

How are SLCPs Different from Carbon Dioxide?

SLCP reduction cannot replace decarbonisation. Both must be pursued together.

What are the Major SLCPs and Their Sources?

Black Carbon

Black carbon, commonly called soot, is produced through incomplete combustion.

Major Sources

• Burning of biomass
• Household cooking and heating with solid fuels
• Diesel engines
• Fossil-fuel combustion
• Stubble burning
• Open-waste burning
• Brick kilns
• Forest fires

Black carbon is not a greenhouse gas. It is a fine particle that absorbs solar radiation and warms the atmosphere.

Methane

Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas and the second-largest contributor to global warming after carbon dioxide.

Major Sources

• Paddy cultivation
• Livestock digestion
• Animal manure
• Landfills and waste disposal
• Coal mining
• Oil and gas extraction
• Leakage during fossil-fuel processing and transport

Methane has approximately 80 times greater warming power than carbon dioxide during its first 20 years in the atmosphere.

It also contributes to the formation of tropospheric ozone.

Hydrofluorocarbons

HFCs are synthetic gases commonly used in:

• refrigerators;
• air conditioners;
• cooling equipment;
• insulating foams; and
• fire-suppression systems.

Depending on the gas, HFCs can have hundreds or thousands of times greater warming potential than carbon dioxide.

Their emissions could rise rapidly with increasing cooling demand, particularly in subtropical countries such as India.

Tropospheric Ozone

Ozone is found in two major atmospheric layers.

Tropospheric ozone is not directly emitted. It is formed when pollutants such as:

• methane;
• nitrogen oxides; and
• volatile organic compounds

react in the presence of sunlight.

How do SLCPs Affect the Climate?

Near-Term Global Warming

SLCPs have high warming potential over short periods. Their reduction can quickly slow the rate of global temperature increase.

Melting of Snow and Ice

When black carbon settles on snow or ice:

• it darkens the surface;
• surface reflectivity or albedo decreases;
• more solar radiation is absorbed;
• surface temperature increases; and
• melting accelerates.

Impact on Himalayan Glaciers

Black carbon can accelerate the melting of snow and glaciers in the Hindu Kush–Himalayan region.

It can also affect:

• cloud formation;
• atmospheric circulation;
• moisture transport; and
• seasonal snowfall.

Climate Tipping Points

Rapid reduction of SLCPs can decrease the risk of triggering dangerous tipping points, including the release of carbon dioxide and methane from thawing Arctic permafrost.

How do SLCPs Affect Human Health?

• Black carbon is a harmful component of PM2.5 air pollution.
• Fine particles can enter deep into the lungs and may enter the bloodstream.

Long-term exposure is associated with:

• asthma;
• pneumonia;
• chronic respiratory illness;
• heart disease;
• lung cancer; and
• premature death.

Air pollution is associated with nearly 7 million premature deaths globally every year. Rapid action against SLCPs, including clean cooking and heating, can prevent millions of premature deaths.

How do SLCPs Affect Food Security?

Tropospheric Ozone

Ozone enters plants through leaf openings and damages plant tissues. It reduces photosynthesis and lowers agricultural productivity.

Major affected crops include:

• wheat;
• rice;
• maize;
• soybean; and
• other staple crops.

Tropospheric ozone causes an estimated annual loss of nearly 110 million tonnes of major staple crops globally.

Black Carbon

Black carbon affects crops by:

• reducing the sunlight reaching plants;
• settling on leaf surfaces;
• affecting photosynthesis;
• disturbing rainfall patterns; and
• altering local temperature conditions.

Climate-related Effects

SLCP-induced warming can increase:

• droughts and floods;
• heat stress;
• pests and crop diseases;
• water scarcity; and
• instability in food supply.

Why are SLCPs Particularly Important for India?

Severe Air Pollution

India experiences high air-pollution levels, creating major public-health and economic costs.

A study estimated that air pollution contributed to:

• 1.67 million deaths in India in 2019;
• around 17.8% of all deaths in that year; and
• economic losses of approximately US$36.8 billion, equivalent to 1.36% of GDP.

Indo-Gangetic Plain as a Black Carbon Hotspot

The Indo-Gangetic Plain has:

• high population density;
• extensive use of biomass fuels;
• agricultural-residue burning;
• dense transport networks;
• industries and brick kilns; and
• widespread combustion-related emissions.

Himalayan Water Security

More than one-fifth of India’s GDP is linked directly or indirectly to the Himalayan ecosystem.

Accelerated glacier loss threatens the river systems of:

• Indus;
• Ganga; and
• Brahmaputra.

This makes black-carbon mitigation both a climate and water-security priority.

Residential Fuel Combustion

A 2025 assessment cited in the report estimated that residential fuel combustion produces nearly 60% of South Asia’s black-carbon emissions.

Women and children face greater exposure because they often spend more time near household cooking areas.

Methane Emissions

The cited Global Methane Status Report 2025 placed India among the world’s largest methane emitters.

According to India’s Third Biennial Update Report, its methane emissions in 2016 came mainly from:

• Agriculture: 73.96%
• Waste: 14.46%
• Energy: 10.62%
• Industrial processes: 0.96%

Agricultural methane is closely connected with paddy cultivation and livestock-based livelihoods.

Rising Cooling Demand

Rapid urbanisation, higher temperatures and rising incomes are increasing demand for refrigerators and air conditioners. Without low-global-warming alternatives, this could increase HFC emissions and electricity consumption.

What are the Major International Initiatives?

Montreal Protocol, 1987

• It was adopted to protect the ozone layer by controlling ozone-depleting substances.
• It initially focused on substances such as chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons.

Kigali Amendment, 2016

• It provides for the phased reduction of HFC production and consumption.
• India ratified the amendment in September 2021.
• India has committed to freezing HFC use by 2028 and reducing it by 85% by 2047.
• A global HFC phase-down could avoid up to 0.5°C of warming by 2100.

Global Methane Pledge

The Global Methane Pledge was launched at COP26 in Glasgow in 2021.

It seeks to:

• collectively reduce global methane emissions by at least 30% from 2020 levels by 2030;
• improve methane measurement and reporting; and
• promote action in agriculture, energy and waste.

It has 159 participating countries and the European Commission. The target is collective and global, not a uniform national reduction requirement.

India has not joined the Pledge. It has described much of its agricultural methane as survival emissions because paddy cultivation and livestock support food security and millions of livelihoods.

Climate and Clean Air Coalition

• The Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) is a UNEP-led partnership focused on reducing SLCPs.
• India joined the coalition in 2019.

What Measures has India Taken?

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

The Act provides the legal framework for preventing, controlling and reducing air pollution.

National Ambient Air Quality Standards

The NAAQS, 2009 prescribe standards for 12 major pollutants, including:

• PM10;
• PM2.5; and
• ozone.

National Air Quality Index

Launched in 2015, the index communicates air quality through easily understandable categories.

Graded Response Action Plan

Introduced in 2017 for Delhi-NCR, GRAP provides graded emergency measures based on the severity of air pollution.

National Clean Air Programme

The NCAP covers 130 cities across 24 States and Union Territories.

It seeks to:

• improve city-level air-quality management;
• reduce particulate pollution;
• strengthen monitoring;
• prepare clean-air action plans; and
• provide performance-linked grants.

The programme follows an integrated and collaborative approach to controlling road dust, vehicles, construction, waste burning and other pollution sources.

Performance During 2025–26

• 65 of the 130 NCAP cities maintained PM2.5 concentrations within the NAAQS limit of 40 µg/m³.
• Delhi recorded a PM2.5 concentration of 102 µg/m³.
• Only 14 cities met the PM10 standard of 60 µg/m³.

Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana

• The scheme has provided more than 10.5 crore LPG connections.
• It has expanded household access to cleaner cooking fuel.
• However, affordable and sustained refilling remains a challenge.

GOBARdhan

The Galvanising Organic Bio-Agro Resources Dhan Scheme promotes:

• scientific management of cattle dung and organic waste;
• production of biogas and compressed biogas;
• reduction of uncontrolled methane emissions; and
• conversion of waste into useful resources.

Agricultural Measures

Methane-reduction practices include:

• System of Rice Intensification;
• Direct-Seeded Rice;
• alternate wetting and drying;
• crop diversification;
• balanced livestock feed; and
• improved manure management.

The government promotes these practices through the National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture, NICRA, Krishi Vigyan Kendras and the National Livestock Mission

What are the Major Challenges?

Dependence on Biomass Fuels

Many households continue using firewood, dung cakes and crop residue because clean fuels may be unaffordable or unavailable.

Agricultural Livelihoods

Paddy cultivation and livestock are important for food security and rural employment. Methane reduction policies must therefore protect farmers’ livelihoods.

Crop-residue Burning

Farmers often have a short period between harvesting paddy and sowing the next crop. Limited access to machinery and alternative residue markets encourages burning.

Rising Cooling Demand

Rapid expansion of cooling equipment could increase HFC emissions unless affordable low-GWP technologies become widely available.

Fragmented Governance

SLCP sources fall under several sectors, including:

• agriculture;
• energy;
• transport;
• housing;
• industry;
• waste management; and
• urban development.

This requires strong coordination among Union, State and local governments.

Monitoring Gaps

India needs improved inventories, satellite monitoring and local-level data to identify sources and measure policy outcomes.

Warming and Cooling Aerosols

Some aerosols produce cooling by reflecting sunlight. Reducing air pollution without simultaneously reducing methane and carbon dioxide could temporarily reveal additional warming. Therefore, policies must follow an integrated scientific approach.

Way Forward

• National SLCP Strategy: Set sector-wise targets for methane, black carbon, tropospheric ozone precursors and HFCs.
• Clean Cooking: Ensure affordable LPG refills and promote electric and biogas-based cooking.
• Crop-residue Management: Expand farm machinery, biomass markets and compressed-biogas production.
• Agricultural Methane Reduction: Promote water-efficient rice cultivation, balanced livestock feed and scientific manure management while protecting farmers’ incomes.
• Sustainable Cooling: Implement the Kigali Amendment, promote low-GWP refrigerants and improve appliance energy efficiency.
• Black Carbon Control: Encourage cleaner fuels, improved brick kilns, stricter vehicle-emission standards and control open-waste burning.
• Stronger NCAP: Expand monitoring, prepare source-specific city plans and link grants with verified outcomes.
• Himalayan Protection: Strengthen black-carbon monitoring, glacier research and regional cooperation.
• Continue Decarbonisation: SLCP reduction must complement renewable energy, clean transport, energy efficiency and industrial decarbonisation.

Conclusion

Reducing SLCPs offers India a rare opportunity to address climate change, air pollution, public health, food security and Himalayan water security together. Because these pollutants remain in the atmosphere for relatively short periods, targeted action can produce visible benefits within years. However, SLCP reduction cannot substitute for carbon-dioxide mitigation. An integrated strategy combining decarbonisation with clean cooking, sustainable agriculture, scientific waste management and low-emission cooling is necessary for climate-resilient and inclusive development.