Mains Practice Questions for the Day
- Q. Explain the scientific basis of optogenetics. Discuss its significance in understanding brain functions and examine the challenges associated with its application to human healthcare.
- Q. Artificial Intelligence can help developing countries overcome limitations in healthcare, education and governance, but its benefits depend on adequate infrastructure, skills and institutions. Discuss in the light of the World Development Report 2026. Suggest a suitable AI strategy for India.
Q. Explain the scientific basis of optogenetics. Discuss its significance in understanding brain functions and examine the challenges associated with its application to human healthcare.
Introduction:
Optogenetics is a biotechnology technique that combines genetic modification and light to activate or inhibit selected cells, particularly neurons. The 2026 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine recognised Karl Deisseroth, Peter Hegemann and Georg Nagel for discoveries that established this field.
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Scientific Basis
- Scientists introduce genes encoding light-sensitive proteins called opsins into selected neurons.
- An important opsin is channelrhodopsin-2, originally identified in the alga Chlamydomonas.
- When exposed to blue light, channelrhodopsin opens an ion channel, allowing positively charged ions to enter the neuron.
- This changes the neuron’s electrical state and generates a nerve impulse.
- Other opsins can suppress neuronal activity.
Process:
Opsin gene → selected neuron → light stimulation → ion movement → activation or inhibition.
Thus, optogenetics provides cell-specific and millisecond-level control over neural activity.
Significance
- Causal brain mapping: Establishes whether particular neurons directly produce a behaviour.
- Understanding brain functions: Identifies circuits governing memory, fear, movement, pain, hunger, sleep, reward and social behaviour.
- Disease research: Improves understanding of Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, epilepsy, depression, anxiety and schizophrenia.
- Memory studies: Activation of specific memory-related neurons has produced fear responses in mice.
- Medical potential: It is being investigated for restoring vision in retinitis pigmentosa and improving cochlear implants.
- Body–brain research: Helps examine communication between the brain, heart and gut.
Challenges
- Requires genetic modification of human cells.
- Deep-brain stimulation may need surgically implanted optical fibres.
- The skull and tissues limit light penetration.
- Animal results may not translate directly to complex human brains.
- Long-term risks include immune reactions and unintended genetic effects.
- Manipulation of memory or behaviour raises concerns about consent, mental privacy and cognitive autonomy.
Conclusion:
Optogenetics has transformed neuroscience from observing neural activity to precisely manipulating it. However, human application requires safer gene delivery, less-invasive light systems, rigorous clinical trials and strong neuroethical safeguards
Q. Artificial Intelligence can help developing countries overcome limitations in healthcare, education and governance, but its benefits depend on adequate infrastructure, skills and institutions. Discuss in the light of the World Development Report 2026. Suggest a suitable AI strategy for India.
Introduction:
The World Development Report 2026: The Promise of Artificial Intelligence states that AI can help address development challenges affecting nearly 5.6 billion people in low- and middle-income countries. However, its benefits depend on the three Cs—Capabilities, Concentration and Complements.
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Developmental Potential of AI
- Healthcare: Supports disease diagnosis, medical screening and early detection of tuberculosis and cancer.
- Agriculture: Provides weather forecasts, crop advisories and efficient use of water and fertilisers.
- Education: Enables personalised learning and local-language educational support.
- Governance: Assists in fraud detection, tax administration, court-case allocation and welfare delivery.
- Employment productivity: AI can improve productivity in nearly 16.2% of jobs in developing economies.
- Small AI: Affordable and locally adapted applications can function through basic phones and low-bandwidth networks.
Key Challenges
- Unequal access to electricity, broadband, devices and computing facilities.
- Shortage of AI professionals and inadequate digital literacy.
- Limited local-language and representative datasets.
- Concentration of advanced chips, computing capacity and AI models in a few countries and companies.
- Algorithmic bias, privacy violations, cyber fraud and deepfakes.
- Displacement of routine jobs, particularly in BPO and digital services.
- Lack of accountability, audits and grievance-redressal mechanisms.
- High electricity and water consumption by data centres.
Way Forward
India should follow the Adopt–Adapt–Advance approach:
- Adopt proven AI tools for immediate developmental needs.
- Adapt them to Indian languages and local conditions.
- Advance domestic capabilities gradually through the IndiaAI Mission.
- Expand affordable broadband, computing infrastructure and quality datasets.
- Promote Small AI, worker reskilling and responsible public procurement.
Conclusion:
AI should complement human capabilities rather than simply replace labour. By combining Digital Public Infrastructure, skilled human resources, inclusive datasets and responsible regulation, India can use AI to promote inclusive development while protecting employment, privacy and democratic trust.
