Relevance: TGPSC Group I: Electoral administration and governance in Telangana
For Prelims:
- SIR, draft electoral roll, Enumeration Form, ERO, BLO, ASDD, Form 6
For Mains:
- Electoral inclusion, documentary verification, administrative capacity, claims and objections, voter exclusion
Why in News?
The draft electoral roll prepared under the Special Intensive Revision 2026 in Telangana was published on August 17. Around 92.87 lakh electors included in the draft roll are set to receive notices because of logical discrepancies or failure to establish a link with the 2002 SIR roll.
Progress of Telangana SIR
The revision began on June 15, 2026. After ten days of preparation, training and printing of Enumeration Forms, the enumeration phase commenced on June 25.
The initial deadline of July 24 was extended twice:
- First to August 3
- Subsequently to August 10
The exercise involved:
- 33 District Election Officers
- 119 Electoral Registration Officers
- 892 Assistant Electoral Registration Officers
- 35,985 Booth-Level Officers
- 3,590 BLO supervisors
Enumeration Forms were distributed for 3,38,26,448 electors included in the 2025 rolls.
Key Electoral-Roll Figures
| Category | Number | Share |
| Electors in the 2025 roll | 3,38,26,448 | 100% |
| Electors included in draft roll | 2,64,87,213 | 78.3% |
| Names deleted | 73,39,235 | 21.7% |
| Electors due for notices | 92,87,577 | 35% of draft roll |
| Notices for anomalies | 60,50,918 | — |
| Notices for non-mapping with 2002 SIR | 32,36,659 | — |
- Deletion categories include absent, shifted, deceased and duplicate electors, collectively referred to as ASDD, besides other cases.
- A notice does not itself amount to deletion. It initiates further verification by the electoral authorities.
Why Will Electors Receive Notices?
Notices will be issued for two principal reasons:
Logical Discrepancies
Around 60.50 lakh electors have inconsistencies involving age, family relationships, names, relative type or documents.
Non-Mapping with the 2002 SIR
Approximately 32.36 lakh electors could not be linked with an elector or relative appearing in the 2002 SIR roll.
Of the unmapped voters, 23,05,799, or 71%, belong to 24 Assembly constituencies across four districts in the capital region.
Eleven Identified Anomalies
The Chief Electoral Officer listed the following discrepancies:
- Gap of less than nine months between children
- Gap of less than 15 years between parent and child
- Age gap exceeding 50 years between child and parent
- Gap of less than 40 years between elector and grandparent
- Parent’s name differing from the previous SIR
- Different relative type in the current and previous rolls
- Father recorded in the current roll but husband in the previous roll
- Different father’s name in the two rolls
- Incorrect age difference between the current and previous SIR
- Submission of zero documents
- Submission of Aadhaar alone
Name mismatch between the current draft and the 2002 roll is also being treated as a significant discrepancy, although it is not included in the formal list. Even initials appearing in one roll and a full name in another may result in a notice.
Problems in Mapping with the 2002 SIR
Names in the 2002 roll were sometimes shortened or misspelt. Later revisions and the use of full names in Aadhaar resulted in variations between older and current records.
Other difficulties included:
- Errors in names and ages
- Changes in the description of relatives
- Electors entering current EPIC details in sections meant for 2002 information
- Limited field assistance from BLOs in some urban areas
Rural BLOs were reported to have been more active in helping voters understand the mapping process than their urban counterparts.
ASDD Categories
Absent
An elector was not found at the recorded address during verification.
Shifted
The elector was considered to have moved from the registered location.
Deceased
A total of 9,22,229 deaths were recorded. These entries are considered relatively reliable because death certificates were uploaded as evidence.
Duplicate
- Duplicate entries were identified through software. However, automated matching may produce errors and therefore requires verification.
- Concerns have arisen over absent and shifted classifications because house-to-house visits were reportedly not conducted consistently in some urban areas. Certain BLOs operated from central locations for the distribution and collection of forms instead of visiting individual households.
- Electors mistakenly placed in ASDD categories have been advised to approach the authorities for correction.
Notice and Verification Process
The notice phase began on August 17, following the conclusion of enumeration.
Procedure
- Notices will be delivered through BLOs.
- Electors must submit their replies through the BLO.
- The ERO or Assistant ERO may contact the elector by telephone if clarification is required.
- The elector may also be summoned for a hearing.
- Verification will continue until October 15.
This stage gives electors an opportunity to explain discrepancies and establish their eligibility before the final roll is prepared.
Claims and Objections
The claims and objections period extends from August 17 to September 16.
During this period, electors can:
- Challenge an incorrect ASDD classification
- Seek restoration of an omitted name
- Submit supporting documents
- Correct errors in personal or family details
Electors whose names were removed during an earlier summary revision and who did not receive Enumeration Forms must apply as new voters using Form 6, even if they had voted in earlier elections.
Activists have demanded that ASDD lists be displayed prominently on the websites of the Telangana Chief Electoral Officer and the ECI.
Documentary Requirements
Indicative Designated Documents
- Identity card or Pension Payment Order issued to a regular government or PSU employee or pensioner
- Government, local authority, bank, Post Office, LIC or PSU document issued before July 1, 1987
- Birth certificate
- Passport
- Recognised matriculation or educational certificate
- Permanent Residence Certificate
- Forest Rights Certificate
- OBC, SC, ST or other caste certificate
- National Register of Citizens, wherever applicable
- Family Register maintained by government officials under a statutory or administrative regulation
- Land or house allotment certificate
Aadhaar alone has been included among cases inviting further verification.
Documents Required by Birth Category
| Birth Category | Requirement |
| Born in India before July 1, 1987 | Proof of the elector’s date and/or place of birth |
| Born between July 1, 1987 and December 2, 2004 | Proof relating to the elector and one parent |
| Born after December 2, 2004 | Proof relating to the elector, father and mother |
| Born outside India | Proof such as a birth-registration certificate issued by an Indian Mission abroad |
Family Registration Certificate Issue
- The Telangana government ordered the issue of Family Registration Certificates on July 25 after concerns that genuine electors might lack designated documents.
- The ECI rejected the certificate because applicant data was digitally extracted from ration or Food Security Cards rather than verified through an independent process.
- several thousand people had applied. Errors in the ages of family members were also found in some certificates.
Conclusion
The notice phase is crucial for correcting discrepancies arising from historical rolls, documentation gaps and uneven field verification. Transparent publication, accessible hearings and careful examination of claims are necessary to maintain both the accuracy and inclusiveness of Telangana’s electoral roll.
CARE MCQ
Q. With reference to Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls, consider the following statements:
- It is conducted by the Election Commission of India for large-scale revision of electoral rolls.
- Its legal basis includes Article 324 of the Constitution and Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1950.
- It aims to include eligible voters and remove duplicate, deceased and ineligible entries.
- It is only a routine summary revision without house-to-house verification.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 1 and 4 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only
Explanation
- Statement 1 is correct: SIR is a large-scale revision of electoral rolls carried out by the Election Commission of India.
- Statement 2 is correct: It is based on the ECI’s powers under Article 324 and Section 21(3) of the RPA, 1950.
- Statement 3 is correct: Its objective is to include all eligible citizens aged 18+ and remove duplicates, deceased persons and ineligible entries.
- Statement 4 is incorrect: SIR is not merely a routine summary revision. It involves intensive steps such as fresh enumeration, house-to-house verification by BLOs and document verification.
FAQs
1. Does receiving a notice mean that a voter has been deleted?
No. It means that the elector must clarify a discrepancy or submit documents for verification.
2. What does ASDD mean?
It refers to electors classified as Absent, Shifted, Deceased or Duplicate.
3. How should an elector reply to a notice?
The reply and supporting documents must be submitted through the BLO.
4. What is the claims and objections period?
It runs from August 17 to September 16, 2026.
5. Until when will notice verification continue?
Verification will continue until October 15, 2026.
6. What should an omitted elector do?
An elector can approach the officials during the claims period. Those removed earlier and not issued an Enumeration Form may have to apply using Form 6.
Relevance: GS Paper III: Agriculture, groundwater, renewable energy, farm subsidies and climate change
For Prelims:
- PM-KUSUM, solar irrigation, grid-connected pumps, solarised agricultural feeders, feed-in tariff
For Mains:
- Water–energy–food nexus, differentiated regional approach, groundwater monitoring, micro-irrigation, climate-resilient agriculture
Why in News?
Over the past five years, PM-KUSUM has installed more than 2.5 million solar pumps. As the government prepares PM-KUSUM 2.0, the key challenge is to expand clean and affordable irrigation without worsening groundwater over-exploitation.
Solar Irrigation and Groundwater
Heavily subsidised or free agricultural electricity has contributed to:
- Excessive groundwater extraction
- Falling water tables
- Depletion of aquifers
- Increasing subsidy burdens on electricity utilities
Solar pumps provide electricity at almost zero operating cost after installation. A standalone pump without any conservation incentive may therefore encourage farmers to pump more water.
However, solar irrigation does not automatically cause groundwater depletion. Its impact depends on:
- Design of the irrigation model
- Ownership structure
- Pricing incentives
- Local hydrogeology
- Cropping pattern
- Soil type
- Economic returns from additional irrigation
The correct policy question is therefore not whether solar irrigation is inherently harmful, but which model should be deployed in a particular region and with what incentives.
Why Outcomes Depend on the Model
1. Grid-Connected Individual Solar Pumps
Farmers use solar electricity for irrigation and sell unused power to the grid. The ability to earn from surplus electricity gives them a reason to limit unnecessary pumping.
Gujarat’s Suryashakti Kisan Yojana
Under the Suryashakti Kisan Yojana, around 100 agricultural feeders were shifted to solar energy.
The programme offered a feed-in tariff of approximately ₹7 per unit. Participating farmers:
- Recorded slower growth in energy use and irrigation than non-solar farmers
- Earned an average of about ₹21,900 annually
- Shifted from being only energy consumers to energy producers
The model demonstrates how pricing incentives can link energy sales with groundwater conservation.
2. Fee-for-Service Centralised Model
- Under Bangladesh’s common centralised model, a pump owner supplies irrigation water to several farmers within a fixed command area and earns revenue from the service.
- Solar irrigation was 20–30% cheaper than diesel irrigation, but users did not apply more water than diesel-pump users.
- Excessive use by one farmer would reduce the operator’s ability to serve others. Financial sustainability therefore encouraged efficient and equitable distribution.
3. Standalone Off-Grid Pumps
A farmer owns or operates a pump that is not connected to the electricity grid. The electricity cannot be sold, reducing the financial incentive to conserve energy.
Its groundwater impact varies with:
- Installed pump capacity
- Depth of the water table
- Whether it replaces diesel or grid electricity
- Years of operating experience
- Extent of irrigation already available
Comparison of Solar Irrigation Models
| Model | Main Feature | Groundwater Incentive |
| Grid-connected individual pump | Surplus electricity sold to grid | Farmer earns by reducing unnecessary pumping |
| Solarised agricultural feeder | Entire feeder shifts to solar power | Benefits DISCOMs but requires separate water-saving incentives |
| Fee-for-service system | Operator sells water to several farmers | Efficient distribution expands the customer base |
| Standalone off-grid pump | Independent irrigation without grid access | Suitable where irrigation access and groundwater risk are low |
Importance of Regional Conditions
Hard-Rock and Rainfed Regions
- Hard-rock aquifers have limited storage capacity. In rainfed areas, each additional unit of irrigation can generate high agricultural returns.
- Evidence indicates little difference in water use between solar and non-solar farmers in such regions because irrigation remains constrained by water availability and crop needs.
Punjab and Haryana
Irrigation is already widespread and dominated by water-intensive crops such as rice and wheat. There is limited scope for further expansion of irrigated area.
The priority is to make the existing water–energy–food system more sustainable by:
- Replacing subsidised fossil-fuel electricity
- Rewarding reduced pumping
- Improving irrigation efficiency
- Lowering the financial burden on power utilities
Eastern India
Large areas remain rainfed because of expensive diesel and unreliable electricity rather than severe water scarcity.
Here, solar pumps can:
- Expand reliable irrigation
- Raise agricultural productivity
- Reduce diesel dependence
- Improve climate resilience
The immediate objective in such regions should be irrigation access, not restricting water use.
Water–Energy–Food Nexus
Solar irrigation cannot be assessed only as an energy or groundwater intervention. It affects three connected systems.
Water
Pump design and pricing influence the quantity of groundwater extracted.
Energy
Solar power can replace subsidised fossil-fuel electricity and expensive diesel.
Food
- Reliable irrigation affects crop choice, productivity and farmers’ capacity to respond to rainfall uncertainty.
- Policy must therefore examine combined outcomes across all three systems rather than maximise benefits in one area at the cost of another.
Environmental and Fiscal Benefits
Groundwater irrigation in India is estimated to generate 45–62 million tonnes of carbon dioxide annually.
State agricultural electricity subsidies collectively exceed ₹1 lakh crore per year.
Evidence from Gujarat indicates that each grid-connected solar farmer:
- Offsets approximately 12.3 tonnes of CO₂ annually
- Uses solar power on the farm
- Exports surplus electricity
- Helps recover public investment through reduced subsidy requirements
Subsidy savings covered nearly one-fourth of government investment within the first two years. With India having more than 25 million agricultural pumps, the potential fiscal and emission benefits are substantial.
Challenges Before PM-KUSUM 2.0
Limited Uptake of Individual Grid Connection
The model of paying farmers for surplus electricity has not expanded sufficiently because of complex connection procedures and unattractive buyback conditions.
Weak Water Incentives in Feeder Solarisation
Solarising an entire feeder supports clean-energy transition but does not automatically change farmers’ pumping behaviour.
Uniform Policy Design
Applying the same model across water-stressed, hard-rock and irrigation-deprived regions can produce unsuitable outcomes.
Inadequate Groundwater Monitoring
Without timely information on aquifer conditions, emerging stress may not be identified early.
Ownership-Centred Approach
Excessive focus on individual pump ownership can limit access for small farmers and reduce the scope for shared, efficient irrigation services.
Appropriate Model for Different Regions
| Regional Condition | Preferred Approach |
| Water-stressed with grid access | Grid-connected pumps with surplus-power buyback |
| Solarised agricultural feeders | Add incentives for reduced water and energy use |
| Limited irrigation and poor grid access | Standalone off-grid solar pumps |
| Smallholder-dominated regions | Shared pumps through cooperatives or associations |
| Low groundwater risk | Expand affordable irrigation access |
| Emerging groundwater stress | Monitoring and adaptive management |
Way Forward
Improve Grid-Connected Pump Model
- Simplify grid-connection procedures.
- Offer attractive buyback prices.
- Reflect the local value of water and crops in incentives.
- Motivate DISCOMs to support farmer participation.
Link Feeder Solarisation with Water Saving
Feeder-level solarisation should be combined with:
- Micro-irrigation support
- Direct payments for reduced pumping
- Incentives similar to Punjab’s Pani Bachao, Paisa Kamao
- Crop-related measures such as Haryana’s Mera Pani Meri Virasat
Expand Shared Irrigation Services
Standalone pumps in irrigation-deprived areas should be scaled through:
- Water-user associations
- Water-selling entrepreneurs
- Farmer cooperatives
This can widen access without requiring every small farmer to purchase a separate pump.
Adopt Adaptive Regional Planning
Deployment should be based on groundwater risk, aquifer type, crop pattern, energy access and the existing level of irrigation. Continuous monitoring should allow policies to be modified when stress begins to emerge.
Conclusion
Solar irrigation is not inherently responsible for groundwater over-extraction. Unsustainable outcomes arise when pump design, pricing and local water conditions are ignored. PM-KUSUM 2.0 should therefore move from uniform pump deployment to region-specific models that align farmers’ incentives with groundwater sustainability, clean energy and reliable irrigation.
UPSC PYQ
Q. With reference to solar water pumps, consider the following statements:
- Solar power can be used for running surface pumps and not for submersible pumps.
- Solar power can be used for running centrifugal pumps and not the ones with piston.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Correct Answer: (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Explanation
Statement 1 is incorrect: Solar power can run both surface pumps and submersible pumps. Surface pumps are used for shallow water sources, while submersible pumps are used for deeper wells and borewells.
Statement 2 is incorrect: Solar power can run different types of pumps, including centrifugal pumps and piston pumps. Centrifugal pumps are common for high-flow use, while piston pumps are useful in high-head or low-flow situations.
CARE MCQ
Q. Consider the following statements regarding solar irrigation in India:
- Grid-connected solar irrigation can incentivise farmers to save water by allowing them to sell surplus electricity to the grid.
- PM-KUSUM has helped make solar pumps affordable through subsidies.
- Solar irrigation outcomes depend only on the source of energy and not on local hydrogeology or cropping patterns.
- Standalone solar pumps may be suitable in areas with poor grid access and low groundwater risk.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 4 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (a) 1, 2 and 4 only
Clear Explanation
Statement 1 is correct:
In grid-connected solar irrigation, farmers can use solar power for pumping water and sell the unused electricity back to the grid. If a farmer pumps less water, more electricity remains available for sale. This creates an incentive to save water and earn income.
Statement 2 is correct:
PM-KUSUM supports solar pumps through subsidies. This has made solar irrigation more affordable for farmers, especially small and marginal farmers.
Statement 3 is incorrect:
Solar irrigation outcomes do not depend only on the source of energy. They also depend on local factors such as groundwater availability, water-table depth, soil type, cropping pattern, crop water demand and local irrigation practices. For example, solar pumps may have different effects in Punjab, Haryana and eastern India.
Statement 4 is correct:
Standalone solar pumps can be useful in areas where farmers do not have reliable electricity and where groundwater is not under serious stress. In such regions, solar pumps can improve irrigation access without immediately worsening groundwater depletion.
FAQs
1. Why can standalone solar pumps encourage over-pumping?
Their electricity has almost no operating cost, and farmers cannot earn by conserving or selling unused power.
2. How do grid-connected pumps promote water conservation?
Farmers can sell surplus electricity and therefore have a financial reason to reduce unnecessary pumping.
3. What is a feed-in tariff?
It is the price paid to farmers for electricity supplied to the grid.
4. Why is solar irrigation useful in eastern India?
It can overcome expensive diesel and unreliable electricity in areas where irrigation access remains limited.
5. What is feeder solarisation?
It involves shifting an entire agricultural electricity feeder to solar power.
6. Why are shared pumps important?
They allow small farmers to access irrigation through cooperatives, associations or water-service providers.
Relevance: Prelims: Makhana, National Makhana Board, NRCM and Central Sector Scheme
For Prelims:
- Euryale ferox, aquatic crop, National Makhana Board, NRCM, HSN Code
For Mains:
Value-chain development, premiumisation, processing, export diversification, farmer collectivisation
Why in News?
India’s makhana sector is expanding due to rising demand for healthy, plant-based foods. The government has established the National Makhana Board and approved a ₹476.03-crore Central Sector Scheme for the Development of Makhana for 2025–26 to 2030–31.
About Makhana
- Makhana, scientifically known as Euryale ferox, is an aquatic crop cultivated mainly in shallow ponds, lakes and wetlands.
- Its edible part is the seed. After roasting and popping, it is consumed as fox nut.
India is the world’s largest producer, supported by:
- Suitable agro-climatic conditions
- Traditional cultivation knowledge
- Expanding domestic demand
- Growth of branded products
- Participation of startups and FPOs
Makhana has evolved from a traditional food of Bihar into a nationally consumed health snack and internationally marketed superfood.
Production and Geographical Distribution
Makhana cultivation is concentrated mainly in:
- Bihar
- West Bengal
- Assam
Bihar’s Dominant Position
Bihar accounts for nearly three-fourths of India’s production and supplies around 80–85% of global makhana.
Major cultivation areas include:
- Kosi basin: Supaul, Saharsa and Madhepura
- Mithila region
- Seemanchal region
Domestic Market
India produces more than 0.6 lakh MT of makhana annually. Around 40% is estimated to be exported, while the remaining quantity is consumed domestically.
The domestic market grew by 17–18% annually between 2021–22 and 2024–25, driven by:
- Health awareness
- Premium branding
- Entry of organised companies
- Expansion of retail networks
- Demand for packaged snacks
The market is projected to reach ₹11,000–12,000 crore by 2029–30.
Price and Supply Trends
Production volumes increased by only 4–5% between FY2022 and FY2025, while average prices rose from:
- Around ₹500 per kg during 2020–22
- To nearly ₹1,250 per kg in 2025
The rise reflected strong demand, premiumisation and a limited supply response.
Export Performance
- Before 2025, makhana was included under general Harmonised System of Nomenclature codes, making product-specific export data unavailable.
- In 2025, the Directorate General of Foreign Trade introduced separate HSN codes for popped makhana and other makhana products.
During 2025–26, India exported:
- 7,264.89 MT of makhana products
- Products worth ₹192.96 crore
Major Export Markets
| Country | Export Share | Average Unit Price |
| United States | 40% | $19.5/kg |
| Canada | 20% | $15.8/kg |
| UAE | 17% | $13.3/kg |
| United Kingdom | 10% | $20/kg |
| Germany | Limited share | $26/kg |
| Nepal | Limited share | $21.6/kg |
| Australia | Limited share | $21/kg |
The US, Canada and UAE together account for 77% of exports. However, Germany, Nepal and Australia offer higher unit prices despite receiving smaller volumes.
This creates scope to diversify towards premium-paying markets while retaining high-volume destinations.
National Makhana Board
The establishment of the National Makhana Board was announced in the Union Budget 2025–26. It was formally launched in Bihar on September 15, 2025.
The Board seeks to strengthen and modernise the complete makhana value chain through support for:
- Cultivation
- Processing
- Farmer organisation
- Value addition
- Branding
- Marketing
- Quality control
- Exports
The initiative recognises makhana as an important crop for farmer incomes, rural industries and agricultural trade.
Central Sector Scheme for Development of Makhana
The scheme has a total allocation of ₹476.03 crore for 2025–26 to 2030–31.
Annual Allocations
- 2025–26: ₹30 crore
- 2026–27: ₹90 crore
Major Objectives
- Promote research and innovation
- Improve quality-seed availability
- Strengthen farmers’ skills
- Modernise harvesting practices
- Upgrade post-harvest operations
- Encourage value addition
- Improve branding and marketing
- Expand exports
- Strengthen quality-control systems
Makhana Value Chain
1. Farm-Level Production
Activities include:
- Pond preparation
- Seed broadcasting
- Crop management
- Underwater seed collection
- Manual harvesting
This stage remains labour-intensive, skill-dependent and only partially mechanised.
2. Primary Processing
Mostly undertaken at the household or village level, it involves:
- Cleaning and drying
- High-temperature roasting
- Popping
- Polishing
- Sorting
- Grading
Larger and better-quality popped makhana receives higher market prices.
3. Secondary Processing
Value-added products include:
- Flavoured makhana
- Ready-to-eat snacks
- Makhana flour
- Packaged products
This segment offers considerable potential for enterprise creation and employment.
National Research Centre for Makhana
The National Research Centre for Makhana supports research, technology development and capacity building.
Major Contributions
- Developed high-yielding makhana varieties
- Developed thornless water chestnut varieties
- Introduced water-efficient farming systems
- Promoted integrated cultivation
- Developed makhana-cum-fish farming
- Distributed 15,824.1 kg of high-yielding seed
- Trained more than 3,000 farmers between 2012 and 2023
- Provided technical support to 24 enterprises
Training has covered:
- Efficient water use
- Cropping systems
- Nutrient management
- Processing
- Marketing
Mechanisation Support
NRCM has developed and licensed:
- Seed washer
- Seed grader
- Primary roasting machine
- Popping machine
- Popped-makhana grader
- Technologies for value-added products
A proposed train-the-trainers approach with agricultural universities seeks to improve extension support across cultivation, grading, processing, packaging and branding.
Significance
Farmer Income
Higher demand, improved varieties and premium markets can raise returns from makhana cultivation.
Rural Employment
Harvesting, popping, grading, packaging and product development generate labour and enterprise opportunities.
Food Processing
Flavoured snacks, flour and ready-to-eat products expand the value captured within producing regions.
Export Potential
India’s global production leadership provides a strong foundation for developing a premium superfood export category.
Wetland-Based Livelihoods
Makhana cultivation supports communities using ponds, lakes and other shallow water bodies.
FPO and Startup Growth
Farmer organisations and new enterprises can improve aggregation, branding and market access.
Major Challenges
- Labour-intensive underwater harvesting
- Limited mechanisation
- Traditional household-level processing
- Slow growth in production relative to demand
- Sharp increase in prices
- Concentration of exports in three markets
- Uneven quality and grading
- Limited penetration of branded products in smaller markets
- Need for better seed supply and post-harvest technology
Way Forward
- Expand improved varieties and quality-seed production.
- Promote field-system and water-efficient cultivation.
- Scale mechanised harvesting, roasting, popping and grading.
- Strengthen FPOs for aggregation and collective marketing.
- Develop common processing and packaging facilities.
- Improve quality-control and product standardisation.
- Support startups producing diversified makhana products.
- Target premium-paying export destinations.
- Expand extension services through the train-the-trainers model.
- Link research, production, processing and branding through the National Makhana Board.
Conclusion
India’s makhana sector is moving from traditional wetland cultivation towards an organised food-processing and export industry. Research, mechanisation, farmer collectivisation and premium-market development can help convert India’s production leadership into higher rural incomes and stronger global competitiveness.
CARE MCQ
Q. With reference to Makhana, consider the following statements:
- Makhana is scientifically known as Euryale ferox.
- The edible part of the makhana plant is its seed.
- In India, it is mainly cultivated in Bihar, West Bengal and Assam.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (d) 1, 2 and 3
Explanation
- Statement 1 is correct: Makhana is scientifically known as Euryale ferox.
- Statement 2 is correct: The edible part of the plant is its seed, which is roasted or processed and consumed as fox nut.
- Statement 3 is correct: In India, makhana cultivation is mainly concentrated in Bihar, West Bengal and Assam, supported by suitable wetlands, ponds and shallow water bodies.
FAQs
1. What is the scientific name of makhana?
Its scientific name is Euryale ferox.
2. Which State leads makhana production?
Bihar is India’s leading producer and the centre of global makhana supply.
3. When was the National Makhana Board launched?
It was launched in Bihar on September 15, 2025.
4. What is the scheme’s total allocation?
The Central Sector Scheme has an outlay of ₹476.03 crore for 2025–26 to 2030–31.
5. Why was a separate HSN code introduced?
It enables product-specific tracking of makhana exports.
6. What are the main value-added products?
They include flavoured snacks, ready-to-eat makhana, flour and packaged products.
