The relationship between religion and politics in India has been analysed by Rajeev Bhargava (Political Secularism), Ashis Nandy, and T.N. Madan, reflecting India’s unique model of pluralism and secular democracy.
Constitutional Provisions:
- Preamble – Secular, Democratic Republic.
- Article 14 – Equality before law.
- Article 15 – Prohibition of discrimination on religious grounds.
- Article 16 – Equality of opportunity in public employment.
- Article 25 – Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion.
- Article 26 – Freedom to manage religious affairs.
- Article 27 – Freedom from taxation for promotion of any religion.
- Article 28 – Freedom regarding religious instruction in educational institutions.
- Articles 29 & 30 – Cultural and educational rights of minorities.
- Article 44 – Uniform Civil Code (Directive Principle).
- Articles 51A(e) & (f) – Fundamental Duties promoting harmony and preserving composite culture.
Religion has historically influenced India’s social and political life. Religion in Indian politics refers to the interaction between religious identities, institutions and political processes, including elections, public policy, representation and nation-building. While the Constitution establishes India as a secular State, religion continues to shape political mobilisation and democratic discourse.
Features:
1. Constitutional Secularism
Equal respect for all religions (Sarva Dharma Sambhava).
2. Religious Diversity
India accommodates multiple religions within a democratic framework.
3. Electoral Mobilisation
Religion often influences voting behaviour and political campaigns.
4. Minority Protection
Constitutional safeguards protect religious minorities.
5. State Intervention
The State may regulate secular aspects of religious institutions to ensure social reform.
6. Identity Politics
Religious identities often intersect with caste, region and ethnicity in political mobilisation.
Merits:
1. Protects Religious Freedom
Guarantees freedom of conscience and religious practice.
2. Promotes Pluralism
Encourages coexistence among diverse religious communities.
3. Strengthens Democratic Participation
Religious communities participate in democratic processes.
4. Enables Social Reform
The State can intervene to abolish discriminatory practices.
5. Preserves Cultural Diversity
Recognises India’s composite cultural heritage.
Limitations:
1. Communal Polarisation
Religion may become a basis for electoral mobilisation and social conflict.
2. Vote-Bank Politics
Political parties may appeal to religious identities for electoral gain.
3. Threat to Secularism
Excessive politicisation of religion may undermine constitutional secularism.
4. Communal Violence
Religious tensions occasionally disturb social harmony.
5. Identity-Based Politics
Religious identity may overshadow developmental and governance issues.
6. Policy Controversies
Issues such as the Uniform Civil Code, personal laws and conversion laws remain politically sensitive.
Major Approaches:
Scholar | View |
Rajeev Bhargava | Advocates principled distance, where the State maintains equal respect while intervening to uphold constitutional values. |
Ashis Nandy | Argues that politicisation of religion is more dangerous than religion itself. |
T.N. Madan | Suggests that complete secularisation is difficult in deeply religious societies like India. |
Thinkers’ Quotes
Rajeev Bhargava: “Indian secularism is based on principled distance, not strict separation between religion and the State.”
Ashis Nandy: “It is not religion but its politicisation that poses the greatest threat to democracy.”
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: “The Constitution recognises liberty of religion but rejects inequality in its name.”
Relevance in the 21st Century:
1. Balancing religious freedom with constitutional morality.
2. Managing religious diversity in an increasingly plural society.
3. Addressing hate speech and communal polarisation in the digital era.
4. Strengthening interfaith dialogue and social cohesion.
5. Ensuring secular governance while respecting religious freedoms.
6. Reconciling individual rights with personal laws and gender justice.
Suggestions:
1. Promote constitutional secularism and constitutional morality.
2. Strengthen civic and constitutional education.
3. Strict enforcement of electoral laws against communal appeals.
4. Encourage interfaith dialogue and community participation.
5. Ensure impartial law enforcement during communal tensions.
6. Promote inclusive development to reduce identity-based political mobilisation.
Important Supreme Court Judgments:
Case | Principle |
S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994) | Secularism is part of the Basic Structure; State governments acting against secularism may attract constitutional consequences. |
Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973) | Basic Structure Doctrine protects secularism. |
Bijoe Emmanuel v. State of Kerala (1986) | Protected freedom of conscience under Article 25. |
Shayara Bano v. Union of India (2017) | Invalidated instant triple talaq, balancing religious freedom with constitutional rights. |
Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala (2018) (Sabarimala) | Examined the relationship between religious freedom, equality and constitutional morality. |
Ayodhya Judgment (M. Siddiq v. Mahant Suresh Das, 2019) | Resolved a long-standing title dispute through constitutional adjudication while affirming the rule of law. |
Committee / Commission References:
Committee | Contribution |
National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (2002) | Recommended strengthening secular values and communal harmony. |
Justice Rajinder Sachar Committee (2006) | Examined the socio-economic status of Muslims and recommended measures for inclusive development. |
Justice Ranganath Misra Commission (2007) | Suggested measures for the welfare of religious and linguistic minorities. |
Conclusion
Religion will continue to influence Indian politics, but constitutional democracy requires that political competition remain guided by secularism, equality, fraternity and constitutional morality, ensuring unity amidst diversity.
The challenge before Indian democracy is not eliminating religion from politics, but ensuring that religion operates within the framework of constitutional values, democratic accountability and secular governance.
With over 99 crore registered electors, India maintains the world’s largest electoral roll. Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is an extraordinary exercise undertaken by the Election Commission to ensure accurate, inclusive and credible electoral rolls, the foundation of free and fair elections.
Constitutional & Legal Basis:
- Article 324 – Superintendence, direction and control of elections vested in the Election Commission.
- Article 326 – Elections based on universal adult suffrage.
- Section 21(3), Representation of the People Act, 1950 – Special revision of electoral rolls.
- Registration of Electors Rules, 1960 – Procedure for revision of electoral rolls.
A Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is a comprehensive, house-to-house verification of electoral rolls conducted by the Election Commission under exceptional circumstances to:
- identify eligible voters,
- remove duplicate, deceased and shifted voters,
- ensure only eligible citizens remain on electoral rolls,
- improve the integrity of elections.
Unlike the annual summary revision, SIR involves physical verification and detailed scrutiny.
Features:
1. Comprehensive Verification
House-to-house verification of electors through Booth Level Officers (BLOs).
2. Enumeration Forms
Collection and verification of voter details and supporting documents.
3. Draft Electoral Roll
Publication of draft rolls followed by claims and objections.
4. Public Participation
Opportunity for objections, corrections and inclusion.
5. Continuous Verification
Verification through Electoral Registration Officers (EROs).
6. Technology Integration
Use of digital electoral databases and online services alongside field verification.
Merits:
1. Enhances Electoral Integrity
Removes duplicate, deceased and ineligible entries.
2. Strengthens Free and Fair Elections
Improves the credibility and accuracy of electoral rolls.
3. Prevents Electoral Fraud
Reduces impersonation and bogus voting.
4. Improves Voter Database
Ensures updated voter information.
5. Enhances Public Confidence
Builds trust in the electoral process.
6. Facilitates Better Election Management
Improves polling station planning and electoral administration.
Issues and Controversies:
1. Risk of Disenfranchisement
Eligible voters may face exclusion due to documentation or procedural errors.
2. Documentation Burden
Concerns regarding documentary requirements for vulnerable populations.
3. Administrative Challenges
Large-scale verification demands significant manpower and resources.
4. Political Controversy
Opposition parties have alleged selective targeting and politically motivated deletions in some States.
5. Impact on Vulnerable Groups
Migrants, elderly citizens, homeless persons and marginalized communities may face greater verification difficulties.
6. Time Constraints
Compressed timelines may affect verification quality and public participation.
7. Federal Concerns
Implementation before elections has generated political disputes in several States.
Supreme Court Judgments:
Case | Principle |
Lakshmi Charan Sen v. A.K.M. Hassan Uzzaman (1985) | Electoral rolls should ordinarily not interrupt the electoral process once elections commence. |
Chief Election Commissioner v. Jan Chaukidar (2013) | Electoral roll preparation falls within the constitutional authority of the Election Commission. |
Association for Democratic Reforms v. Election Commission of India (2026) (SIR Case) | The Supreme Court upheld the constitutional validity of SIR, holding that the ECI has authority under Article 324, Section 21(3) of the RP Act, 1950, and the Registration of Electors Rules. The Court held that accurate electoral rolls are integral to free and fair elections, while directing that genuine eligible voters must receive adequate procedural safeguards. |
Significance of the 2026 Judgment:
- Affirmed the Election Commission’s constitutional authority to conduct SIR.
- Held that electoral roll accuracy is essential to democratic legitimacy.
- Applied the doctrine of proportionality to uphold the exercise.
- Clarified that SIR supplements—not replaces—the statutory framework under the Representation of the People Act.
- Emphasised procedural fairness while protecting electoral integrity.
Suggestions to Improve SIR:
- Adopt a “No Eligible Voter Left Behind” approach.
- Provide multiple documentary options and flexible verification mechanisms.
- Strengthen transparency through public disclosure and digital tracking of applications.
- Expand voter awareness campaigns and legal aid for vulnerable groups.
- Improve training and accountability of Booth Level Officers.
- Use AI, GIS and Aadhaar-enabled (where legally permissible) data analytics to identify duplicates while protecting privacy.
- Ensure adequate time for claims, objections and appeals.
- Establish independent audit and grievance redressal mechanisms.
Contemporary Developments (2025–26):
- The Election Commission expanded SIR beyond Bihar to multiple States and Union Territories in phases.
- The Supreme Court upheld the constitutional validity of the exercise while stressing electoral roll accuracy and procedural safeguards.
- Implementation has also generated political debate regarding documentation, timelines and possible voter exclusion.
Special Intensive Revision strengthens electoral democracy by ensuring accurate voter rolls. Its legitimacy ultimately depends on balancing electoral integrity with universal adult suffrage, ensuring that no eligible citizen is unjustly excluded.
The success of SIR should be measured not merely by the deletion of ineligible names, but by its ability to preserve the constitutional promise of universal, inclusive and credible elections.
The Supreme Court (2026): “Free and fair elections fundamentally depend upon the integrity, accuracy and credibility of the electoral rolls.”
Ethnic politics in Manipur reflects the interaction of identity, territory and political representation. Scholars like Christophe Jaffrelot, Sanjib Baruah (In the Name of the Nation), and B.G. Verghese highlight its federal and security dimensions.
Constitutional Provisions:
- Article 14 – Equality before law.
- Article 15 – Non-discrimination.
- Article 19 – Freedom of movement and residence.
- Article 21 – Right to life and dignity.
- Article 29 – Protection of cultural rights.
- Article 371C – Special provisions for Manipur and the Hill Areas Committee.
- Fifth & Sixth Schedules – Although Manipur is not covered by the Sixth Schedule, the debate on greater autonomy often references it.
- Representation of the People Acts, 1950 & 1951 – Political representation.
Ethnic politics refers to the mobilisation of political support based on ethnic identity, language, tribe, religion or culture. In Manipur, it primarily involves political competition among the Meitei, Kuki-Zo, and Naga communities over issues of land, identity, autonomy, political representation and constitutional safeguards.
Major Ethnic Groups:
Community | Region | Major Concerns |
Meitei | Imphal Valley | ST status, land scarcity, political dominance, security |
Kuki-Zo | Hill districts | Tribal autonomy, land rights, separate administration |
Naga | Northern hill districts | Greater autonomy, integration of Naga-inhabited areas |
Features:
1. Identity-Based Mobilisation
Politics is organised around ethnic identity rather than ideology.
2. Valley-Hill Divide
The Imphal Valley and hill districts have distinct demographic, economic and political characteristics.
3. Territorial Politics
Land ownership and territorial autonomy remain central issues.
4. Constitutional Demands
Demands include ST status, greater autonomy and protection of tribal land.
5. Ethnic Political Parties and Civil Society
Community organisations, student unions and ethnic groups significantly influence politics.
6. Security Dimension
Ethnic politics intersects with insurgency, border management and internal security.
Causes:
1. Historical Legacy
Colonial administrative separation of hill and valley created enduring institutional divisions.
2. Uneven Development
Perceived imbalance between valley-centric development and hill-region neglect.
3. Land Rights
Protected tribal land in hill areas versus limited land availability in the valley.
4. Meitei ST Demand
The demand for Scheduled Tribe status by sections of the Meitei community generated apprehension among tribal groups regarding land and reservation protections.
5. Cross-Border Factors
Myanmar’s instability, refugee inflows and trans-border ethnic linkages have added complexity.
6. Insurgency and Militancy
Presence of armed groups has deepened ethnic mistrust and weakened governance.
Merits (Positive Democratic Dimensions):
1. Political Representation
Provides a democratic platform for articulation of community interests.
2. Cultural Preservation
Protects indigenous languages, traditions and customary institutions.
3. Inclusive Federalism
Draws attention to demands for equitable development and constitutional safeguards.
4. Participatory Politics
Encourages community engagement in democratic processes.
5. Policy Responsiveness
Compels governments to address regional and tribal concerns.
Issues and Challenges:
1. Ethnic Polarisation
Identity politics has deepened social divisions.
2. Violent Conflict
The 2023 ethnic violence caused large-scale casualties, displacement and destruction, with tensions continuing intermittently thereafter.
3. Governance Deficit
Breakdown of trust in public institutions and law enforcement.
4. Humanitarian Crisis
Thousands remain displaced and rehabilitation remains incomplete.
5. Developmental Stagnation
Conflict has disrupted education, investment, healthcare and economic activity.
6. Security Challenges
Proliferation of armed groups and illicit weapons has complicated peace-building efforts.
Sanjib Baruah: “Many conflicts in Northeast India are fundamentally about belonging, territory and the nature of the Indian Union.”
Christophe Jaffrelot: “Identity becomes politically salient when communities perceive insecurity over resources, recognition and representation.”
Constitutional and Political Issues:
- Demand for Scheduled Tribe status for Meiteis.
- Protection of tribal land rights.
- Debate over Article 371C and the role of the Hill Areas Committee.
- Calls from some groups for greater autonomy or separate administrative arrangements.
- Federal management of law and order and peace negotiations.
Supreme Court Interventions:
Case | Principle |
Nandini Sundar v. State of Chhattisgarh (2011) | State must protect citizens and cannot permit armed vigilantism (important principle in conflict governance). |
Supreme Court proceedings relating to Manipur violence (2023–24) | The Court monitored relief, rehabilitation, investigation of violence and protection of victims, emphasising the rule of law and constitutional governance. |
Suggestions:
- Promote sustained inter-community dialogue and confidence-building.
- Accelerate balanced development of hill and valley regions.
- Strengthen implementation of Article 371C and empower the Hill Areas Committee.
- Speed up rehabilitation, compensation and reconstruction for displaced persons.
- Recover illegal arms and strengthen impartial law enforcement.
- Address land, autonomy and reservation issues through constitutional consultation rather than confrontation.
- Enhance border management while protecting humanitarian obligations.
- Promote youth engagement, education and livelihood opportunities to reduce ethnic radicalisation.
Committee / Institutional References:
Committee/Institution | Relevance |
Justice Ajai Lamba Commission of Inquiry (2023) | Investigating the causes and circumstances of the ethnic violence; its tenure has been extended while inquiries continue. |
Ministry of Home Affairs Peace Initiatives | Facilitating dialogue, disarmament and rehabilitation measures. |
Conclusion
Manipur’s experience demonstrates that identity without inclusion breeds conflict. Sustainable peace requires constitutional federalism, balanced development, protection of tribal rights, accountable governance and genuine inter-community reconciliation.
The long-term solution to ethnic politics in Manipur lies not in choosing one community over another, but in strengthening constitutional governance, inclusive federalism and trust among all communities.
