World War –II (1939–45)

• The turmoil caused in Europe by the First World War (1914-18) paved the way for another global conflict—World War II—emerging two decades later and becoming even more destructive. Amidst Germany’s economic and political instability, Adolf Hitler and his National Socialist (Nazi) Party ascended to power, rearming the country and forging strategic alliances with Italy and Japan to pursue his goals of world domination. Hitler’s invasion of Poland in September 1939 prompted Great Britain and France to declare war on Germany, marking the beginning of World War II. Over the following six years, the conflict claimed more lives and caused more widespread destruction than any previous war. Among the estimated 45-60 million deaths, 6 million Jews were systematically murdered in Nazi concentration camps as part of Hitler’s horrific “Final Solution,” now recognized as the Holocaust.

Causes of War

• The years between the first and second world wars were a time of instability during the worldwide Great Depression that began around 1930. During this period, intense nationalist sentiments arose in several nations, including Germany, Italy, and Japan, fueling their ambitions for expansion. Germany sought to extend its influence in Northern and Eastern Europe, Italy aimed to expand into Africa and Greece, and Japan pursued territorial gains in Asia and the South Pacific. Germany had the added motivation of overturning (and ultimately avenging) the harsh terms forced on it at the conclusion of the First World War.
• Competing ideologies further exacerbated international tensions. The Bolshevik Revolution in czarist Russia during the First World War, followed by the Russian Civil War, led to the establishment of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), a vast communist state. This development alarmed Western republics and capitalists, who feared the spread of Bolshevism. In response, ultra-conservative groups gained power in several countries, including Italy, Germany, and Romania. Germany, Italy, and Japan signed mutual support agreements, but unlike the Allied nations they opposed, they never formulated a comprehensive or coordinated plan of action.
• The causes of World War II can be categorized into long-term and short-term factors. One significant long-term cause was the resentment in Weimar Germany stemming from the Treaty of Versailles. Another long-term factor was the evident incapacity of the League of Nations to address major international issues. In the 1930s, this weakness was apparent in conflicts such as those in Manchuria and Abyssinia. The League’s inability to manage these crises highlighted its ineffectiveness in controlling powers that operated outside of accepted international law—Japan in Manchuria and Mussolini’s Italy in Abyssinia.
• The manipulated peace settlements following World War I, particularly the Treaty of Versailles, imposed heavy war reparations on the defeated states, notably Germany. This created a sense of humiliation and loss of prestige among the defeated nations. The treaty included far-reaching territorial adjustments that favored the victorious powers but left the defeated nations deeply dissatisfied. Germany and its allies were particularly crippled by these provisions.
• The Treaty of Versailles imposed Western desires on Germany, setting the stage for consequences that would manifest within two decades. These outcomes contributed significantly to the outbreak of another, even more devastating world war.
• Given the apparent weakness of the League of Nations, Hitler likely realized that he could push boundaries and test the limits of what he could achieve without facing significant opposition. Fascism had thrived in Germany’s devastated economy between the wars (partly a result of the terms of the treaty of Versailles after World War I), and in 1933 the Nazis were voted into power. By 1938 Hitler’s expansionist plans were unmistakable, but supporters of appeasement felt that they could best be contained by diplomacy. Hitler’s first significant breach of the Treaty of Versailles was his introduction of re-armament in Nazi Germany, disregarding the treaty’s prohibition on expanding the military. The world’s powers did nothing in response. Similarly, in 1936, Nazi Germany reoccupied the Rhineland, another act forbidden by Versailles, and again, Hitler faced no substantial resistance. Europe’s inaction continued when Austria and the Sudetenland were occupied by Nazi forces. It was only when it became evident that Hitler aimed to expand further east and that Czechoslovakia and Poland were his next targets that the major European powers finally responded. Hitler’s dismissal of the Munich Agreement as a mere “scrap of paper” revealed his true intentions. However, in 1938, many in the UK supported Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain’s policy of appeasement, hoping to avoid war. Public opinion shifted only when it became clear that appeasement had failed, leading to widespread support for Winston Churchill, who had consistently argued that Chamberlain’s approach was misguided.
• In March of 1938 Hitler invaded Austria, and in September he demanded that Czechoslovakia cede the Sudetenland to Germany; this was an area with a large proportion of German speakers, which had been included in 1919 in the newly established Czech state (previously part of the Austrian empire).

Nazism

• Nazism, was the ideology and practice of the German Nazi Party and of Nazi Germany as a whole. Usually characterized as an offshoot of fascism that incorporates scientific racism and antisemitism, Nazism emerged from pan-Germanism, the Volkisch German nationalist movement, and the anti-communist Freikorps after World War I.
• Nazism adhered to theories of racial hierarchy and social Darwinism. Germanic peoples, referred to as the Nordic race, were depicted as the purest form of the Aryan race and were thus considered the master race. Opposed to both capitalism and communism, it aimed to overcome social divisions, with all parts of a homogeneous society seeking national unity and traditionalism, and what it viewed as historically German territory as well as additional lands for expansion.
• The term “National Socialism” emerged from efforts to redefine socialism in a nationalist context, providing an alternative to both internationalist Marxist socialism and free-market capitalism. The Nazis aimed to achieve this through a “people’s community” (Volksgemeinschaft), intending to unite all Germans as national comrades while excluding those considered community aliens or of a foreign race (Fremdvölkische). National Socialism rejected the Marxist concept of class struggle, opposed ideas of class equality and international solidarity, and sought to defend private property and businesses.
• The Nazi Party was founded as the pan-German nationalist and antisemitic German Workers’ Party on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s, Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organisation, renamed the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei; NSDAP) to broaden its appeal. The National Socialist Program, adopted in 1920, advocated for a united Greater Germany that would deny citizenship to Jews and individuals of Jewish descent. It also supported land reform and the nationalization of certain industries. In his 1924 book Mein Kampf, Hitler detailed his antisemitism and anti-communism, which were central to his political philosophy. He also expressed his contempt for parliamentary democracy and his belief in Germany’s right to territorial expansion.

Starting of War

• Chamberlain and Daladier agreed at Munich to Hitler’s demand for the Sudetenland, but in March 1939 he went beyond the agreement by invading and occupying the rest of Czechoslovakia. By now it was clear that he had similar designs on Poland. On March 31 Britain and France guaranteed to defend Poland against aggression. Hitler’s tanks crossed the Polish frontier on September 1 and two days later Britain and France declared war.
• In 1936 Hitler had entered a vague alliance with the other Fascist country in Europe at that time, Mussolini’s Italy; the pact was described as an ‘axis’ between Rome and Berlin. In the same year Hitler had made an anti-Soviet alliance with Japan. Italy entered the war on Germany’s side in 1940, to be followed by Japan in 1941; together the three nations became known as the Axis powers. But during the first year of the war Hitler had a different and more improbable ally. In August 1939 he and Stalin, ideologically the most committed of enemies, had made a cynical German-Soviet non-aggression pact containing an agreement about the future of Poland. The following month, shortly after Hitler’s invasion of Poland from the west, Stalin’s troops marched in from the east and the country was partitioned.
• In Western Europe the first six months of the war were quiet. This was the period of the so-called phony war, a time of feverish preparation. The action began in April 1940, when German forces invaded Denmark and Norway. British and French troops were sent to Norway, but they maintained only a small foothold before retreating in June. The feebleness of this campaign provoked intense criticism of Chamberlain in the House of Commons on May 7–8. There followed, on May 10, the news that Germany had marched into the Netherlands and Belgium. Chamberlain resigned and was replaced by Winston Churchill.
• The new prime minister’s powers of leadership were severely tested and triumphantly proved by the events of that summer. The German army moved fast in its successful technique of blitzkrieg (lightning war). Holland fell in five days, Belgium in three weeks, and by June 14 the Germans were in Paris. The British Expeditionary Force avoided capture at the coast only by the rescue operation at Dunkirk in late May; the same undertaking brought to Britain the French soldiers who continued to take an active part in the war, as the Free French, under the leadership of Charles de Gaulle.
• In June 1940 Hitler launched an aerial assault on southern England, leading to a life-and-death struggle which became known – without any exaggeration of its importance – as the Battle of Britain. Meanwhile the fall of France had given Germany submarine bases on the Atlantic coast for the almost equally crucial Battle of the Atlantic. Supplies from Canada and the USA were the main external lifeline for Britain. The USA was not yet in the war, but in March 1941 American aid was established on the regular basis of Lend-Lease; and in August the Atlantic Charter expressed a shared vision of the future.

 Major developments

• Two major developments in that same year shaped the future course of events. In June Hitler abandoned his own non-aggression pact and launched a blitzkrieg on Russia; ideology (a hatred of both Slavs and Communists), together with an appetite for Russia’s grain and oil, had made him abandon his more prudent earlier policy. And on December 7 the Japanese air force launched a surprise attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, killing more than 2000 men, destroying 18 ships and some 200 aircraft, and bringing the USA unequivocally into the war. By the end of the month the Japanese had taken Hong Kong and the Philippines, as well as sinking two powerful British warships based in Singapore, the Prince of Wales and the Repulse; early in 1942 they occupied Malaya, Singapore and Burma.
• Japan had been at war with China since 1937; this older conflict now became a strand in the world war, with China (under Chiang Kai-shek) a new member of the Allied nations. The events of 1941 had finally set in place the main combatants: the USA, USSR, China, Britain and the Commonwealth countries on the Allied side, with support from the Free French; Germany, Italy and Japan as the Axis powers.
• In 1941–2 the main theatre of the land war in the west was North Africa. In 1940 Italy held most of the North African coast. But the Suez Canal was essential to Britain’s links with India. In the winter of 1940–1 Wavell drove the Italians west through Libya. The arrival of Rommel and the Afrika Corps turned the tables until the two battles of El Alamein. After the second of these, in November 1942, a joint British and US force under Eisenhower landed in western North Africa. By May 1943 Eisenhower’s forces from the west and Montgomery’s 8th army from the east had converged to trap the enemy. Some 250,000 German and Italian soldiers surrendered.
• The conclusion of the North Africa campaign in May 1943 was the first significant Allied achievement of the war. It was followed in July by the successful invasion of Sicily. This development, combined with the bombing of Rome, prompted Mussolini’s colleagues to overthrow him; a new Italian government made peace with the Allies on September 3. On that same day British and American forces crossed from Sicily to southern Italy, beginning the long Italian campaign as the Allies slowly fought their way up the country against strong German resistance (Italy declared war on Germany in October 1943). The Anzio landing was in January 1944, the struggle for Monte Cassino in February–May, and Rome fell in June. In April Italian partisans captured Mussolini and his mistress near Lake Como and executed them both
• Throughout this central period of the war, Germany’s eastern front against Russia had been a severe drain on Hitler’s resources. The initial invasion in the summer of 1941 went with the usual blitzkrieg bravura; German troops were surrounding Leningrad before the end of August. But the Russians demonstrated their fabled powers of resistance, which in the previous century had humbled even Napoleon. Leningrad withstood a siege of 900 days, until January 1944. When the Germans succeeded in entering Stalingrad in September 1942, the resulting battle left 300,000 of their troops dead and another 100,000 in Russian hands. By the autumn of 1943 the Russians were driving the Germans back on all fronts. By the summer of 1944 the Red Army was in Poland and pressing towards the eastern frontiers of Germany.
• This was the moment at which the Allies launched the most dramatic campaign of the war, with the invasion of Normandy. D-day was 6 June 1944. Paris was liberated on August 25 and Brussels on September 3. On October 21 the US 1st army took Aachen, the first German city to be captured. By then the Allied advance was faltering after the disaster at Arnhem, but a strong German counter-attack in the Ardennes region in December was contained (the Battle of the Bulge).
• In the early months of 1945 the Allies in the west were moving fast into Germany, while the Russians were pressing through east Prussia to Berlin. It was now that the two armies came upon the first harrowing evidence of what has since become known as the Holocaust, the Nazi ‘final solution’ for the Jews. The Russians reached Auschwitz in Poland as the British and Americans came upon Buchenwald, Belsen and Dachau.
• The Russians surrounded Berlin on April 25 and on that same day their advance guard joined up with the US 9th army at the river Elbe, about 100km/62m west of the city. Hitler committed suicide in his Berlin bunker on April 30. The German unconditional surrender came into effect on May 8 (V-E day). One threat of tyranny in Europe had been brought to an end, but the germ of another already existed. The Russians, having advanced from the east, were now in Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Poland as well as eastern Germany.
• The war against Japan was also being slowly won. By the summer of 1945 Burma had been liberated by Slim and the Philippines by the US general Douglas MacArthur, while heavy bombing of Tokyo and other Japanese cities was the clear prelude to an invasion. On July 26, from Potsdam, Truman and Churchill sent an ultimatum to Japan demanding unconditional surrender. The text did not mention the new weapon which had been successfully tested in the USA. The Japanese refused to surrender, and an atom bomb was dropped on August 6 on Hiroshima, followed by another on Nagasaki on August 9. On August 10 the Japanese offered to surrender and the formalities were completed on September 2.

 Conclusion of War

• The horrors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were the culmination of something new in World War II, the bombing of civilians. Serious air raids were first suffered by London and other British cities (such as Coventry) in the blitz that began in 1940, but later in the war the same techniques were used to even more devastating effect against German cities.
• The extreme example was the controversial carpet bombing by the RAF of Dresden during the night of 13–14 February 1945, engulfing the city in a fire storm which is estimated by some to have killed as many as 135,000 people (the immediate death toll at Hiroshima was about 75,000). Meanwhile the Germans had inaugurated in 1944 new techniques of aerial warfare against civilians with unmanned missiles and rockets, the V-1 and V-2 – at that time more psychologically alarming than massively destructive. The Geneva Convention was amended after the war to take into account the bombing of cities.
• The cost of the war in lives far exceeded any previous conflict. The total of military deaths in World War I had been about 8 million, to which a very rough figure of some 7 million civilian deaths is usually added. The figures for World War II are even more inexact, largely because they are unreliable for the two nations with the highest number of casualties, Russia and China. International totals often quoted are in the region of 15–20 million military deaths and 25 million civilian deaths.
• Germany and Austria were occupied after the war by the four western Allies (USA, USSR, Britain, France); Berlin, which fell within the Russian sector of Germany, was similarly divided into four sections.
• Austria became free and neutral in 1955, when the four powers withdrew their occupying forces. At the same period (1954–5) the three western zones of Germany became the Federal Republic of Germany and the Russian zone became a separate state as the German Democratic Republic. Berlin was similarly divided, and the rigid isolation of east Germany from the west was symbolized from 1961 by the Berlin Wall. Its dismantling in 1989 was the prelude to the reunification of Germany in 1990.
• The economic recovery of Europe was greatly advanced by the Marshall Plan of 1947, while the evident need for coordinated western defence led to the establishment in 1949 of NATO. In 1950 the first steps were taken towards what became the EC, prompted by a desire to end the long history of conflict between the nations of Europe. On the broader international scene the war led directly to the creation of the United Nations, with the five main Allies (USA, USSR, Britain, France, China) occupying the only permanent seats on the Security Council.

Impact of World War 2

World War II had a profound impact on the world across multiple dimensions.

1. Human Cost and Casualties:
   • World War II resulted in unprecedented human casualties. Estimates suggest between 70 to 85 million people died, making it the deadliest conflict in human history.
   • Civilian casualties were significant, with bombing raids, massacres, and atrocities affecting millions.
2. Social and Demographic Changes:
   • The war displaced millions of people, leading to large-scale refugee movements and population shifts.
   • Women entered the workforce in large numbers to replace men serving in the military, changing societal norms and roles.
3. Economic Impact:
   • Economically, World War II devastated many countries. Industrial infrastructure, cities, and agriculture were destroyed or severely damaged.
   • The war led to massive government spending and debt, reshaping post-war economic policies and international economic relations.
4. Political Consequences:
   • The balance of power shifted significantly. The Allies emerged as dominant powers, while colonial empires weakened.
   • The United States and Soviet Union emerged as superpowers, leading to the Cold War and reshaping global geopolitics.
5. Technological Advances:
   • World War II accelerated technological advancements, particularly in aviation, radar, nuclear energy, and medicine.
   • The war spurred the development and use of new weapons technologies, including the atomic bomb.
6. Holocaust and Genocide:
   • The Holocaust, the systematic genocide of six million Jews and millions of others by Nazi Germany, remains a profound symbol of the war’s brutality and racial ideology.
   • Other genocides and mass atrocities occurred in Asia and Eastern Europe, further highlighting the war’s humanitarian cost.
7. Formation of International Institutions:
   • The United Nations was established in 1945 to promote international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, marking a significant shift in global diplomacy.
8. Cultural and Social Legacies:
   • World War II left lasting cultural legacies, influencing literature, art, film, and memory worldwide.
   • It also fueled movements for human rights, international justice, and reconciliation in the post-war era.

• World War II reshaped the global landscape in profound ways, influencing politics, economics, society, and culture for decades to come. Its impact continues to be felt in the geopolitical order, international relations, and collective memory of nations around the world.

The Holocaust and Other Atrocities of World War II

• Nazi Germany’s fixation on cultivating a racially pure society prompted a campaign aimed at eradicating “Untermensch” (“sub-humans”). The largest of these groups were European Jews but also included Gypsies, some Slavs, the mental ill, homosexuals, communists, socialists, and any other group termed undesirable. Millions—six million Jews alone—were executed; some were tortured, shot or hanged; others gassed or starved to death in concentration camps (death camps), were worked to death as slave labor, or killed by other means. This systematic genocide is known as The Holocaust, derived from the Greek word meaning “sacrifice by fire.” Any nation that came under German dominance, whether through conquest or political agreement, was expected to participate in the elimination of the Untermensch.
• Imperial Japan also held the belief in racial superiority, viewing its people as superior. This ideology justified acts of aggression against other Asians and Westerners alike. In Nanking, tens of thousands of Chinese civilians were brutally massacred, with many being buried alive or killed in other horrific ways. The Imperial Japanese Army also established Unit 731, a secret biological warfare unit that infected prisoners of war with biological agents in order to study their effectiveness. Some prisoners at Unit 731 in Japan were subjected to unimaginably cruel experiments, such as being dissected alive without anesthesia to study the effects of diseases on their bodies. Other appalling experiments were also conducted at this facility. Unlike many perpetrators of similar atrocities in Europe, who were tried and punished for their crimes, the staff of Unit 731 were granted immunity by U.S. authorities in exchange for their research findings, which were sought for America’s own biological warfare program. The Soviet Union prosecuted a dozen members of the unit and sentenced them to labor camps.

Social Changes Resulting from World War II

• The Second World War effectively ended the era of European colonialism. European nations had been seriously weakened by the war, and their people were war-weary. Leftist revolts in colonies across Africa and Asia typically resulted in the colonial powers eventually withdrawing. This withdrawal occurred through various means, sometimes peacefully through negotiations, and other times after prolonged periods of guerrilla warfare and conflict. Many rebels had received combat experience during the war; often, the best-organized and best-armed rebel groups were communist. Their uprisings for independence, land reform or other goals helped fuel fears of a global communist takeover—especially since eastern Europe had fallen under the control of the USSR at war’s end and communists won the Chinese Civil War in 1949—and western nations often supplied aid or even military support to suppress them.
• On the American homefront, African Americans who had served in the war returned only to find that the old discrimination and segregation practices were still firmly in place. A civil rights movement developed, with Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., as its best-known leader, that ended officially sanctioned segregation, discrimination in employment and other social ills. Mahatma Gandhi in India paved the way for civil rights movements in the U.S. and other countries through nonviolent means. In 1948, conservatives in South Africa narrowly defeated the moderate coalition that had led the nation through World War II. The new government implemented even more stringent racial segregation policies than before, under the system known as apartheid (meaning “separateness”). Apartheid persisted in South Africa until 1994.
• During the war, with a large number of men serving in the military, women entered the workforce in significant numbers and proved capable of handling non-traditional roles such as welding and other industrial jobs. However, immediately after the war ended, many women were displaced from these positions as men returned home and took over the jobs they had held. A baby boom began, and women of the “boomer generation” would lead their own civil rights movement against gender discrimination in employment and other areas.
• Nazi Germany had developed a rocket program, launching explosive missiles against civilian targets in Britain. At war’s end, the US and USSR raced against each other to round up as many of the German scientists as they could to develop their own programs. This technological advancement not only produced intercontinental ballistic missiles capable of carrying nuclear warheads but also sparked a “Space Race” between the two ideologically opposed nations, propelling humanity beyond the confines of Earth for the first time.
• Other technologies originally developed or improved for wartime purposes also found their way into daily life, with nuclear power being a prominent example. Today, nuclear power supplies energy to homes and businesses in many nations around the world. Improved radar and sonar, microwave ovens, the expansion of chemical and plastics industries, and many other changes were part of the post-war world. Even the toy Slinky was developed by Richard James, an engineer working on a meter to test horsepower on battleships.

Ques. 1: To what extent can Germany be held responsible for causing the two World Wars? Discuss critically

(UPSC: 2015)

Introduction:	Germany’s involvement in the two World Wars stands as a pivotal chapter in 20th-century history, marked by unprecedented devastation and global consequences. Evaluating the degree of Germany’s responsibility necessitates a thorough analysis of political, economic, and social dynamics preceding each war. Following World War I, the Treaty of Versailles imposed severe penalties on Germany, exacerbating resentment and economic adversity domestically. The ascent of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party during the 1930s heightened tensions, with territorial expansion and militarization becoming central tenets of German foreign policy.
Body:	Historical Context: The late 19th century saw the culmination of Germany’s unification under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck in 1871. This historic event heralded the birth of a formidable and assertive nation in the heart of Europe. Bismarck’s skilful diplomacy sought to maintain a balance of power on the continent through the creation of the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy. However, rivalries and competing interests among European powers led to the formation of the Triple Entente, comprising France, Russia, and later, Britain. This intricate system of alliances and counter-alliances created a fragile equilibrium, with tensions simmering beneath the surface. Contribution of Germany in World War-I Germany’s emergence as a unified nation under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in 1871 heralded a new era of European power dynamics. The militaristic culture fostered by Bismarck’s policies and Kaiser Wilhelm II’s aggressive expansionism contributed to growing tensions in Europe. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in 1914 served as a catalyst for war, with Germany supporting Austria-Hungary against Serbia. Germany’s implementation of the Schlieffen Plan, aimed at securing victory through swift mobilization and a two-front war, further escalated the conflict. The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh reparations and territorial losses on Germany, sowing the seeds of resentment and economic instability that would fuel the rise of extremism in the interwar period. Contribution of Germany in Inter-war periods: The Weimar Republic, established after the collapse of the German Empire, grappled with political instability, economic turmoil, and social upheaval. The Treaty of Versailles, viewed as a humiliating imposition by many Germans, provided fertile ground for nationalist and extremist ideologies to flourish. The rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party capitalized on widespread disillusionment and promised to restore Germany’s greatness through aggressive expansionism and militarization. Germany’s remilitarization of the Rhineland, annexation of Austria, and occupation of Czechoslovakia (Munich Agreement) demonstrated its determination to challenge the post-war order and pursue territorial ambitions. Contribution of Germany in World War II: Hitler’s expansionist ambitions, fueled by the concept of Lebensraum (living space) and a racial hierarchy, drove Germany’s aggressive foreign policy. The failure of appeasement and the lack of decisive action by the international community emboldened Hitler, leading to the invasion of Poland in 1939 and the subsequent outbreak of war. Germany’s blitzkrieg tactics, characterized by rapid and overwhelming force, swiftly overran much of Europe, plunging the world into another devastating conflict. The Holocaust, perpetrated by the Nazi regime, stands as one of the darkest chapters in human history, illustrating the depths of Germany’s descent into barbarism during World War II.
Conclusion:	Germany’s role in the two World Wars is complex and multifaceted, shaped by a combination of historical, political, and ideological factors. While Germany’s aggressive expansionism, militarism, and authoritarianism were significant contributors to both conflicts, it is essential to recognize the broader context in which these events unfolded. The legacy of Germany’s actions in the World Wars continues to reverberate in contemporary geopolitics and serves as a sobering reminder of the catastrophic consequences of unchecked nationalism and militarism.