UPSC CARE Mains Practice 9th April 2026

Mains Practice Questions for the Day

Q. The Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) marks a significant milestone in India’s nuclear energy programme. Discuss its significance for India’s three-stage nuclear strategy and examine the need for nuclear regulatory reforms. (15 M)

(GS Paper III – Science & Technology – Nuclear Energy, Energy Security, Clean Energy Transition)

Introduction:

India’s Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, has achieved first criticality, that is, the start of a controlled nuclear chain reaction. This is a landmark development because PFBR is the first commercial-scale reactor of the second stage of India’s three-stage nuclear power programme, designed to address India’s limited uranium reserves and vast thorium potential.

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1. What is PFBR and why is it important?

The PFBR is a 500 MW Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) developed at Kalpakkam by BHAVINI with technological support from the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR).
Unlike conventional reactors, a breeder reactor produces more fissile material than it consumes by using plutonium-based fuel and depleted uranium
Its achievement of first criticality is significant because it marks the operational beginning of Stage 2 of India’s nuclear power strategy.

2. Link with India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Programme

India’s nuclear strategy, designed by Homi J. Bhabha, is based on optimal utilisation of scarce uranium and abundant thorium reserves.
In Stage 1, Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) use natural uranium and generate plutonium as a by-product.
In Stage 2, Fast Breeder Reactors like PFBR use this plutonium along with depleted uranium to generate electricity and breed more plutonium.
In Stage 3, this plutonium will help convert thorium into Uranium-233, enabling thorium-based reactors.
Thus, PFBR is the crucial bridge between uranium-based and thorium-based nuclear energy in India.

3. Strategic and Energy Significance of PFBR

PFBR strengthens energy security by reducing dependence on imported uranium and improving fuel efficiency.
It supports India’s clean energy goals, as nuclear energy currently contributes around 3% of electricity generation from 8.78 GW installed capacity, and can help in achieving Net Zero by 2070.
Compared to solar power, nuclear plants require much less land for equivalent electricity generation.
Fast breeder technology also enhances long-term sustainability by creating additional fuel, making India’s nuclear model more self-reliant.

4. Concerns and Challenges

Despite its technological importance, the PFBR project faced serious implementation issues.
Its cost rose to ₹8,181 crore, more than double the original estimate, and commissioning was delayed by nearly 16 years.
These delays point to issues such as technological complexity, procurement bottlenecks, and administrative inefficiencies.

5. Need for Nuclear Regulatory Reform

The PFBR’s progress also highlights the urgent need for a stronger nuclear regulatory framework.
At present, the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) and the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) both function under the Atomic Energy Commission, creating a structural conflict of interest because the same umbrella body both promotes and regulates nuclear energy.
With developments such as the SHANTI framework, possible private participation, and the emergence of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), India needs an independent, transparent, and credible nuclear regulator to ensure safety, public confidence, and international best practices.

Conclusion:

The PFBR is a landmark in India’s nuclear journey because it operationalises the second stage of the three-stage programme and brings the country closer to a thorium-based energy future. However, for nuclear expansion to be sustainable and publicly legitimate, technological progress must be accompanied by robust and independent regulatory reforms.

Q. India’s decision to phase down Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) reflects the growing convergence between ozone protection and climate change mitigation. Discuss the significance of the Kigali Amendment and examine India’s strategy in this regard. (15 M)

(GS Paper III – Environment – Climate Change, International Agreements, Environmental Governance)

Introduction:

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), widely used as refrigerants, are potent greenhouse gases with very high global warming potential. India’s decision to stop new production clearances after 2027 aligns with its commitments under the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, marking a shift from ozone protection to broader climate action.

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1.Background: From Ozone Protection to Climate Action

The Montreal Protocol (1987) successfully phased out ozone-depleting substances like CFCs (99% eliminated globally), leading to recovery of the ozone layer.
However, their substitutes—HFCs—though ozone-friendly, have high global warming potential (thousands of times CO₂).
This led to the adoption of the Kigali Amendment (2016), which aims to phase down HFCs globally. India ratified it in 2021, committing to a gradual reduction.

2. India’s Commitments and Strategy

India will begin HFC phase-down from January 1, 2028, targeting a 10% reduction by 2032 and 85% by 2047.
The government has decided to halt new environmental clearances for HFC production after December 31, 2027, ensuring no expansion in capacity.
The strategy includes amending the Ozone Depleting Substances Rules, 2000, promoting alternative refrigerants, and adopting energy-efficient cooling technologies.
This reflects a phased, development-sensitive approach consistent with the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR).

3. Significance of the Kigali Amendment

The Kigali Amendment is a legally binding global agreement that integrates climate mitigation with ozone protection.
It is estimated that global HFC phase-down can avoid up to 5°C of global warming by the end of the century.
It also promotes technology transfer and financial assistance to developing countries through mechanisms similar to the Montreal Protocol’s Multilateral Fund.

4. Challenges and Concerns

Transitioning away from HFCs requires high investment in new technologies such as hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) and natural refrigerants.
There may be cost implications for industries and consumers, particularly in the cooling sector.
Limited domestic manufacturing capacity and dependence on imported alternatives can pose challenges.
Additionally, ensuring compliance and monitoring across sectors remains a regulatory challenge.

5. Way Forward

India should promote indigenous R&D and manufacturing of alternative refrigerants to reduce import dependence.
Strengthening the domestic regulatory framework and enforcement mechanisms is essential.
Encouraging energy-efficient cooling solutions through schemes like the India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP) can complement HFC reduction. International cooperation for technology transfer and financing must be leveraged effectively.

Conclusion:

India’s phased approach to HFC reduction reflects a balanced strategy that integrates environmental responsibility with developmental needs. The Kigali Amendment represents a critical step in global climate governance, and effective implementation will be key to achieving both ozone protection and climate mitigation goals.