Early Phase of Colonial Science in India:
- Colonial scientists in the early phase engaged in multiple fields simultaneously, such as botany, geology, geography, and education.
- They efficiently gathered data but depended on British scientific institutions for analysis and conclusions.
- British investments were made in botanical, geological, and geographical surveys with the aim of gaining economic and military advantages.
- Medical and zoological sciences were neglected, and research in physics or chemistry was discouraged due to potential industrial development.
Scientific Bodies and Museums:
- In response to the lack of scientific infrastructure, European intellectuals, led by William Jones, founded the Asiatic Society in Calcutta in 1784, becoming a focal point for scientific activity.
- Other scientific societies were established, including the Agricultural-Horticultural Society of India (1817), Calcutta Medical & Physical Society (1823), Madras Literary and Scientific Society (1818), and the Bombay Branch of the Asiatic Society (1829).
British Administration (Post-1858):
- When the Crown formally took over Indian administration in 1858, efforts were made to consolidate gains in exploring natural resources.
- The government established various institutions and expanded survey organizations, with a focus on geological explorations for economic benefits.
- The Geological Survey of India was created in 1851, but no similar organization for botanical explorations emerged.
Scientific Departments and Institutions:
- Different cadres were established, with the Indian Medical Service serving the army, and the agriculture sector being left to private agricultural societies initially.
- The Indian Agricultural Service was organized in 1906, but financial and administrative constraints hindered its growth into a well-integrated scientific department.
Educational System and Science:
- Science did not receive a high priority in the colonial educational scheme. The Charter of 1813 aimed at promoting scientific knowledge among the inhabitants but was not effectively implemented.
- Macaulay’s influence in 1835 led to English becoming the medium of instruction, and his personal distaste for science delayed the introduction of science in schools.
- Few medical and engineering institutions were established primarily to support British-trained doctors and engineers.
- Ancient universities and Islamic centers of learning in India did not survive, and in 1857, the Universities of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras were established based on the pattern of London University.
Introduction of Science Education (1870s):
- In 1870, Indian universities began to show interest in science education.
- Madras University, in 1875, replaced the examination of matriculation candidates in British history with geography and elementary physics.
- Bombay was the first university to grant degrees in science.
- Calcutta University divided its B.A. into two branches: ‘A’ course for literary studies and ‘B’ course for science.
Educational Direction and Focus:
- The colonial education system did not aim to encourage critical thinking or a questioning attitude. Instead, it promoted passive acceptance of the curriculum.
- English was the medium of instruction, and most textbooks were written and printed abroad, reflecting British culture.
- The educational approach tended to alienate the educated population from their own culture.
- The emphasis was on replicating the British educational model, despite the vast social and economic differences between Britain and colonial India.
Impact on Society:
- The education system contributed to a lack of enterprise and a readiness among the educated class to follow orders from the authorities.
- The intention of the rulers was to shape a population that would adhere to British ideals and governance.
- Institutions and teachers viewed the British educational model as the ideal, even though the social and economic context of colonial India differed significantly.
Government-Linked Research:
- Due to the absence of higher scientific education, scientific research in colonial India was initially a government-centric exercise.
- Scientists were expected not only to discover new economic resources but also to aid in their exploitation.
- Areas of focus included agriculture (plantation research for cash crops like cotton, indigo, tobacco, and tea), geology (surveys to exploit mineral resources), and health (addressing diseases like malaria, cholera, plague, and kalazar).
Contributions of Scientists:
- Despite challenging conditions and government lukewarmness, notable scientific works were conducted during this period.
- Scientists like Ronald Ross, Macnamara, Haffkine, and Rogers made significant contributions to the understanding and control of diseases like malaria, cholera, and plague.
Shift towards Bacteriological Research:
- Bacteriological research gained prominence, leading to the growth of clinical treatment, private practice, and the pharmaceutical industry.
- However, preventive measures such as sanitary reforms and the supply of drinking water to villages and towns were neglected.
Response from the Local Population:
- The British scientific activities prompted a response from the local populace, especially the educated section seeking opportunities in the colonial administration and economy.
- Some Indians participated in officially patronized scientific associations but often sought a distinct identity, establishing their own institutions, scholarships, and facilities.
Promotion of Modern Science:
- Individuals like Ram Mohun Roy, Bal Gangadhar Shastri, Hari Keshavji Pathare, Master Ramchander, Shubhaji Bapu, Onkar Bhatt Joshi, and Aukhoy Dutt worked to popularize modern science in Indian languages.
- Geography and astronomy were initially chosen for emphasis, challenging Pauranic myths.
Founding Scientific Societies:
- In 1864, Syed Ahmed Khan founded the Ahgarh Scientific Society, emphasizing the introduction of technology in industrial and agricultural production.
- In 1876, M.L. Sarkar established the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, which aimed at original investigations and science popularization. It operated without government aid and became an important research center.
- In Bombay, Jamshedji Tata’s efforts led to the establishment of the Indian Institute of Science at Bangalore in 1909.
Objectives of Swadeshi Movement:
- The Swadeshi Movement played a significant role in promoting education along national lines, with a focus on science and technology.
- It aimed to industrialize the country, reducing dependence on colonial powers.
Formation of Scientific Education Association (1904):
- In 1904, the Association for the Advancement of Scientific and Industrial Education of Indians was formed.
- The objective was to send qualified students to Europe, America, and Japan for studying science-based industries.
Challenges Faced by Indian Scientists:
- In the colonial environment, Indian scientists faced challenges such as limited opportunities for higher studies and research, discriminatory practices in salaries, and difficulty gaining recognition in British scientific circles.
Response on the Political Platform:
- The Indian National Congress addressed the issue of technical education in its third session in 1887 and continued to pass resolutions on it.
- Concerns were raised about the lower forms of practical training provided in the name of technical education.
Galvanizing Effect on Scientific Activity:
- Efforts by Indian scientists had a galvanizing effect, leading to the establishment of the University College of Science in Calcutta in 1904.
- Eminent scientists like P.C. Ray, C.V. Raman, S.N. Bose, and K.S. Krishnan taught there, producing a group of physicists and chemists with international recognition.
Formation of Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA):
- The Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA) was established in 1914 with the objectives of promoting scientific enquiry, interaction among individuals and societies interested in science, and raising general attention to pure and applied sciences.
Indian Industrial Commission (1916) and Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (1942):
- In 1916, the Indian Industrial Commission was appointed to examine steps to lessen India’s scientific and industrial dependence on Britain.
- The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research was established in 1942 as part of post-war reconstruction plans.
Debates on Economic Development:
- Debates arose on the path of economic development. P.C. Ray advocated progress through elementary education and traditional industries, while M.N. Saha and his Science & Culture group supported big industries.
National Planning Committee (1938) and Science Policy:
- The National Planning Committee was formed in 1938, emphasizing national planning and industrialization as top priorities.
- A subcommittee on Technical Education, chaired by M.N. Saha, worked on reviewing existing institutions.
Impact of Second World War (1939-45):
- The outbreak of the Second World War led to the interruption of the sea route between India and England, prompting the colonial government to allow greater industrial capability to develop in India.
- The establishment of a Central Research Organisation and the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research followed.
Role of A.V. Hill and Post-War Reconstruction:
- A.V. Hill, President of the Royal Society, prepared a report in 1944 identifying research problems in India.
- Post-war reconstruction plans and Hill’s report provided greater opportunities for Indian scientists in policy-making and management of scientific affairs.
Post-Independence Development:
- The Indian freedom movement recognized that political independence was a step toward economic independence. Decisions about industry and trade had to be made independently for economic development to serve the people’s needs.
Scientific Policy Resolution (1958):
- Jawaharlal Nehru piloted the “Scientific Policy Resolution” in 1958, emphasizing the crucial role of technology in national prosperity and development. It highlighted the importance of science in creating new techniques and applications.
Expansion of Science and Technology in India:
- Post-independence, there was a significant expansion of science and technology in education and research. India had universities, engineering colleges, medical colleges, and numerous research laboratories.
Challenges in Research Expenditure:
- While there was an increase in funds allocated to research, developing countries collectively spent only 2% of the total world expenditure on research. A large proportion of talented individuals migrated to developed countries due to better opportunities.
