India’s growing energy consumption has led to increased reliance on fossil fuels, posing concerns about future energy security due to rising prices and potential shortages. This dependence also contributes to environmental issues. To address these challenges, there’s a pressing need to shift towards renewable energy sources such as solar energy, wind, tide, biomass, and energy from waste materials, collectively known as non-conventional energy sources.
- India, blessed with abundant sunlight, water, wind, and biomass, has undertaken extensive programs for developing these renewable resources, reflecting a commitment to sustainable and environmentally friendly energy solutions.
Nuclear or Atomic Energy
Basics
Radioactive Element
- A radioactive element is an element that contains isotopes with unstable nuclei, leading to spontaneous emission of radiation. These elements undergo a process known as radioactive decay, during which they transform into different elements by emitting particles or electromagnetic radiation. Some well-known radioactive elements include uranium, thorium, radium, and radon.
Radioactivity
- Radioactivity is the property exhibited by certain elements where their atomic nuclei are unstable, leading to the emission of particles and energy. This phenomenon was first discovered by Henri Becquerel and further explained by Marie Curie. The three common types of radioactive decay are:
- Alpha Decay: In alpha decay, an unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle, which consists of two protons and two neutrons (essentially a helium nucleus).
- Beta Decay: In beta decay, a neutron is transformed into a proton, and an electron (beta particle) is emitted.
- Gamma Decay: After alpha or beta decay, the resulting nucleus may be in an excited state. It releases excess energy in the form of a gamma ray (high-energy electromagnetic radiation) to reach a more stable state.
Radiation Facilities
- Radiation Facilities includes application of radiation and sources and radiation generating equipment. Broad categories of radiation applications are for use of ionizing radiation in Industrial, Medical, Research, Consumer products and Scanning Facilities.
- Industrial applications include radiation processing facilities, Industrial Radiography, Nucleonic Gauges, Well-logging applications etc. Medical applications of radiation involve two broad categories. One category is for Diagnostics and the other for Therapeutic use of ionizing radiation. Radiation applications in Research include Gamma Irradiation Chambers, Research Accelerators and Research labs using sealed and unsealed sources.
Nuclear or atomic energy
- Nuclear or atomic energy is harnessed by altering the structure of atoms, releasing a significant amount of heat that is utilized to generate electric power. Uranium and thorium, found in Jharkhand and the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan, are essential for producing atomic or nuclear power. Additionally, the monazite sands of Kerala are rich in thorium, contributing to the country’s nuclear energy resources.
Nuclear Fission:
- Nuclear fission involves the splitting of a heavy atomic nucleus into two smaller nuclei, releasing a large amount of energy. The process is typically initiated by bombarding the nucleus with a neutron. This process is the basis for nuclear power plants and atomic bombs.
Reaction Equation for Nuclear Fission:
- Uranium-235+Neutron→Krypton-92+Barium-141+Neutrons+Energy
Nuclear Fusion:
- Nuclear fusion is the process of combining two light atomic nuclei to form a heavier nucleus. This process releases an immense amount of energy and is the fundamental reaction powering the sun. This process powers the sun and hydrogen bombs.
- Deuterium+ Deuterium→ Helium+ Neutron+ Energy
Nuclear Reactor Basics
- Fuel: Nuclear reactors use a special type of fuel called uranium-235. This isotope of uranium is chosen because it can undergo a process called nuclear fission.
- Control Rods: Control rods are placed among the fuel rods. These rods can be moved in and out of the reactor core to control the rate of the nuclear reaction.
- Coolant: A coolant, often water, is circulated around the fuel rods to absorb the heat generated during the nuclear reaction. This heated coolant is then used to produce steam.
- Steam Generation: The heat generated in the reactor turns the water into steam. This steam is then used to drive a turbine.
- Turbine: The turbine is connected to a generator. As the steam passes through the turbine, it causes the turbine to spin.
- Generator: The spinning turbine turns the generator, converting the mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Nuclear Reaction (Fission):
- Initiation: A neutron is fired at the nucleus of a uranium-235 atom. This impact causes the uranium-235 atom to split into two smaller atoms, releasing energy.
- Chain Reaction: This fission process also releases more neutrons. These newly released neutrons can then initiate the fission of other uranium-235 atoms, creating a chain reaction.
- Control of the Chain Reaction: Control rods are used to regulate the chain reaction. By adjusting the position of the control rods, operators can control the rate at which the uranium atoms undergo fission.
Safety Measures:
- Cooling System: The coolant plays a crucial role in carrying away the excess heat generated during the nuclear reaction.
- Containment Building: Nuclear reactors are housed in robust containment structures to prevent the release of radioactive materials.
- Emergency Shutdown: In case of any issues, the reactor can be quickly shut down by inserting control rods to stop the chain reaction.
India’s Three Stage Nuclear Program
Dr. Homi Bhaba devised India’s three-stage nuclear power program in the 1954. It was formulate to provide energy security to India. The main aim was to capitalize on India;s vase thorium reserves while accounting for its low uranium reserves.
India has only about 2% of the global uranium reserves but 25% of the world;s thorium reserves.
The three stages are:
1. Natural uranium fuelled Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PWHR)
2. Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) utilizing plutonium based fuel
3. Advanced nuclear power systems for utilization of thorium
Stage 1
- The first stage involved using natural uranium to fuel Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors to produce electricity and producing plutonium-239 as a byproduct. Using Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors rather than Light Water Reactors was the best choice for India given its infrastructure.
- While Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors used unenriched uranium, Light Water Reactors required enriched uranium. Also, the components of PWHR could be domestically manufactured in India, as opposed to LWRs, which would need some components to be imported. Furthermore the byproduct plutonium-293 would be used in the second stage.
- Coolant: Heavy Water (Deuterium Oxide) is used as the coolant. It helps transfer the heat produced in the reactor core to the steam generators.
- Moderator: Heavy Water also acts as a moderator. It slows down neutrons, making them more effective in causing fission reactions.
Stage 2
- The second stage involves using plutonium-239 to produce mixed-oxide fuel, which would be used in Fast Breeder Reactors.
- These reactors have two processes. Firstly plutonium 293 undergoes fission to produce energy, and metal oxide is reacted with enriched uranium reacts with mixed-oxide fuel to produce more plutonium-239.
- Furthermore once a sufficient amount of plutonium-239 is built up, thorium will be used in the reactor, to produce Uranium-233. This uranium is crucial for the third stage.
- Coolant: Liquid Sodium is used as the coolant. Sodium has excellent heat transfer properties.
- Moderator: There is no traditional moderator in FBRs. Fast neutrons, which are not slowed down, are used for fission reactions. This design allows for the breeding of fissile material (like Pu from U )
Stage 3
- The main purpose of stage-3 is to achieve a sustainable nuclear fuel cycle. The advance nuclear system would be used a combination of Uranium-233 and Thorium. Thus India’s vast thorium would be exploited, using a thermal breeder reactor. Currently this stage is still in the research stage.
Thus India is looking to simultaneously using its thorium in other technologies. The options include Accelerator Driven Systems (ADS), Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) and Compact High Temperature Reactor (CHTR).
- Coolant: Coolant can be either Light Water (ordinary water) or Heavy Water, depending on the specific design. AHWRs are versatile in this aspect.
- Moderator: Depending on the specific design, moderators can include heavy water or graphite.
Indian Molten Salt Breeder Reactor (IMSBR)
The Indian Molten Salt Breeder Reactor (IMSBR) is a type of nuclear reactor designed to use thorium as a fuel to produce energy.
- Thorium Fuel: IMSBR uses thorium, a naturally occurring element, as its primary fuel.
- Molten Salt: The fuel is in the form of molten (liquid) fluoride salt. This is different from traditional solid fuel used in many reactors.
- Continuous Circulation: The molten salt continuously circulates, allowing for efficient heat transfer.
- Energy Production: Neutrons (tiny particles) are introduced to the thorium, causing it to undergo a process that releases a lot of heat energy.
- Online Reprocessing: IMSBR allows for online reprocessing, which means extracting certain byproducts during the reaction to make the process more efficient.
- Decay Process: One of the byproducts, called 233Pa, undergoes a natural decay process, turning into 233U.
- Self-Sustaining Cycle: This 233U can then be used as fuel in the reactor, creating a self-sustaining cycle.
- Heat to Electricity: The heat generated is used to produce electricity through a system called Super-critical CO2 based Brayton cycle (SCBC).
Innovative High Temperature Reactor (IHTR)
- BARC is also developing the Innovative High Temperature Reactor (IHTR) with an aim to provide high temperature process heat for hydrogen production by thermochemical water splitting. This reactor is a molten salt cooled pebble bed type reactor. It uses TRISO type particle fuel made into form of pebbles, cooled with molten fluoride salts. Thus, coolant temperatures upto 665°C can be reached which allows for efficient interface with hydrogen plant. Currently, a 20 MWth IHTR is being designed as demonstration reactor. Development of high temperature heat pipes, facility for graphite oxidation studies, TRISO coated particle fuel, fuel pellet fabrication, Niobium alloy and components of test loop, machining of graphite components for IHTR experimental facility, thermal hydraulic studies on coolants have been completed.
Small modular reactors
- Small modular reactors (SMRs) are advanced nuclear reactors that have a power capacity of up to 300 MW(e) per unit, which is about one-third of the generating capacity of traditional nuclear power reactors. SMRs, which can produce a large amount of low-carbon electricity, are:
- Small – physically a fraction of the size of a conventional nuclear power reactor.
- Modular – making it possible for systems and components to be factory-assembled and transported as a unit to a location for installation.
- Reactors – harnessing nuclear fission to generate heat to produce energy.
Advantages of SMRs
- Site Flexibility: SMRs can be sited in locations unsuitable for larger nuclear plants, providing energy access in diverse geographical areas.
- Cost-Effective Construction: Prefabrication allows for cost savings and quicker installation, making SMRs more affordable and reducing construction delays.
- Incremental Deployment: SMRs can be deployed incrementally to match increasing energy demand, offering flexibility in meeting grid requirements.
- Rural Electrification: In areas with limited grid coverage, SMRs, especially microreactors, can be installed off-grid, providing low-carbon power for industry and rural communities.
- Enhanced Safety: SMR designs often feature simpler and safer concepts, relying on passive systems that eliminate or reduce the potential for unsafe releases of radioactivity in case of accidents.
- Reduced Fuel Requirements: SMRs have reduced fuel requirements, with some models operating for up to 30 years without refueling, leading to less frequent maintenance.
India is exploring innovative technologies, particularly small modular reactors (SMRs), in its strategic pursuit of clean energy, according to Jitendra Singh, the Union Minister of State for Science & Technology, emphasizing India’s commitment to transitioning towards clean energy.
Nuclear Power Plants in India
- Presently, India has 22 operating reactors, with an installed capacity of 6780 MWe. Among these eighteen reactors are Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) and four are Light Water Reactors (LWRs).
- The oldest nuclear facility in India is the Tarapur Nuclear Reactor in Maharashtra, which started commercial operations in 1969. The largest Nuclear Power Plant in India is the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tirunelveli district, TamilNadu.
Nuclear Fuel Cycle Facilities
Nuclear Fuel Cycle Facilities include both the front end and back end nuclear fuel cycle facilities that involve exploration, mining, milling, fuel fabrication, spent fuel reprocessing and other associated facilities.
Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD)
- Exploration and Research to identify and evaluate uranium resources in the country is the prime mandate of Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD). For implementing this important task, investigations are taken up across the length and breadth of the country from Regional Exploration & Research Centres of AMD located at New Delhi , Bengaluru, Jamshedpur, Shillong, Jaipur, Nagpur and Hyderabad (Headquarter & South Central Region).
- Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB), the national regulator for enforcing nuclear and radiation safety in the country, has been exercising its regulatory control over the exploration and research activities of AMD.
Uranium Corporation of India Limited
- Uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL) carries out underground uranium mining at Jaduguda, Bhatin, Narwapahar, Turamdih, Bagjata and Mohuldih in Jharkhand and at Tummalapalle in Andhra Pradesh. It also operates an open cast uranium mine at Banduhurang, Jharkhand. AERB regulates the uranium mines under the provisions of the Atomic Energy (Radiation Protection) Rules, 2004.
Indian Rare Earths Limited (IREL)
- Indian Rare Earths Limited (IREL) has three Mineral Separation Plants (MSP) at Chavara, Manavalakurichi and Chatrapur (Orissa Sands Complex –OSCOM) respectively which are involved in separation of heavy minerals like Ilmenite, Rutile, Garnet, Zircon, Sillimanite and Monazite from the mined out beach sands. AERB regulates MSPs of IREL under the provisions of the Atomic Energy (Radiation Protection) Rules, 2004.
Nuclear Fuel Fabrication Facilities
- Nuclear Fuel Fabrication Facilities are located currently in Hyderabad and Pazhayakayal (Tamilnadu). A new Fuel Fabrication facility is coming up at Rawathbhata (Rajasthan). Nuclear Fuel Fabrication Facilities convert uranium ore concentrates (UOC), obtained from uranium ore processing plants, into uranium oxide pellets which are loaded into zircaloy tubes and fabricated into fuel assemblies for nuclear reactors.
- The AERB regulates nuclear fuel fabrication facilities under the provisions of the Atomic Energy Act,1962, The Factories Act, 1948 and applicable rules framed there under, namely Atomic Energy (Safe Disposal of Radioactive Wastes) Rules, 1987, Atomic Energy (Factories) Rules, 1996and Atomic Energy (Radiation Protection) Rules, 2004.
Heavy Water Board (HWB)
- Heavy Water Board (HWB), a constituent unit of Industries and Minerals Sector under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), is engaged in the production of Heavy Water (Deuterium Oxide-D2O). Additionally, it also produces various organo-phosphorus solvents for meeting the requirement of DAE units.
- Heavy water is produced at Manuguru (Telangana), Rawatbhatta (Rajasthan), Thal (Maharashtra) & Hazira (Gujarat). Other plants located at Baroda (Gujarat), Tuticorin (Tamilnadu) & Talcher (Odisha) are involved in production of organo phosphorous solvents and other chemicals used in DAE. HWB is also involved in recovery of Rare Material (Uranium) at its Technology Demonstration Plant (TDP), Mumbai.
Waste from NPPs
Nuclear power plants prioritize waste management throughout their lifecycle, adhering to a philosophy that restricts the release of any waste to the environment unless cleared, exempted, or excluded from regulations. The focus is on waste minimization, volume reduction, and compliance with regulatory requirements.
Philosophy:
- Delay and decay of short-lived radionuclides.
- Concentrate and contain activity when feasible.
- Dilute and disperse low-level radioactive waste within authorized limits.
Regulatory Compliance:
- Radiation dose to the public near operating nuclear power plants must not exceed an annual limit of 1 mSv.
- AERB issues authorizations specifying disposal limits, renewable every three years based on performance reviews.
Waste Disposal Methods:
- Solid Waste: Conditioned solid waste is disposed of in Near Surface Disposal Facilities within exclusion zones, designed to contain radionuclides until decayed to negligible levels.
- Liquid Waste: Treated low-level liquid waste is discharged after ensuring compliance with regulatory limits through chemical treatment, evaporation, ion exchange, and filtration.
- Gaseous Waste: Treated at the source, gaseous waste is discharged through a 100 m high stack with continuous monitoring and compliance checks.
Closed Fuel Cycle:
- India adopts a closed fuel cycle involving reprocessing and recycling of spent fuel.
- Reprocessing results in only about 2-3% of spent fuel becoming waste, with the majority recycled.
- High-level waste at the end is emplaced in geological disposal facilities.
Monitoring and Review:
- Nuclear power plants submit “return of waste disposed” to AERB.
- Regulatory inspections ensure compliance with technical specifications.
- Independent environmental surveys assess the actual impact of releases on the environment.
Top of Form
Nuclear Diplomacy
Nuclear diplomacy refers to the use of diplomatic efforts and negotiations to manage and influence international relations related to nuclear weapons, technology, and energy. It involves strategies employed by nations to safeguard their national security interests, promote peaceful uses of nuclear technology, and prevent nuclear proliferation.
The key goals often include arms control, disarmament, non-proliferation, and the peaceful development of nuclear energy.
Features of Indian Nuclear Diplomacy:
- No-First-Use (NFU) Policy:
- India’s nuclear doctrine includes a No-First-Use policy, meaning that India pledges not to use nuclear weapons first but retains the right to respond if attacked with nuclear weapons.
- Minimum Credible Deterrence:
- India emphasizes the concept of “minimum credible deterrence,” suggesting that its nuclear capabilities are designed to deter potential adversaries rather than engage in an arms race.
- Global Non-Proliferation Regime:
- India, while not a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), supports the global non-proliferation regime. It advocates for universal nuclear disarmament and seeks to play a responsible role in global nuclear governance.
- Strategic Autonomy:
- India values its strategic autonomy and decision-making independence. It has been cautious about entering into military alliances and prefers to pursue an independent foreign policy.
- Bilateral Agreements:
- India engages in diplomatic efforts to build bilateral agreements related to civil nuclear cooperation. The Indo-U.S. Civil Nuclear Agreement is a prominent example, allowing India access to global nuclear technology and fuel.
- India has signed civil nuclear cooperation agreements with France, the United States, Russia, Namibia, Canada, Argentina, Kazakhstan, Republic of Korea, Czech Republic, Australia, Sri Lanka and the United Kingdom. A Memorandum of Understanding on civil nuclear cooperation has also been signed with Mongolia.
- In December 2015, India and Japan exchanged a Memorandum as per which both sides confirmed having reached agreement on an Agreement for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy.
- Engagement with International Organizations:
- India actively participates in international forums such as the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and supports initiatives for peaceful uses of nuclear energy, nuclear safety, and nuclear security.
- Disarmament Initiatives:
- India advocates for global disarmament and has called for a Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) and negotiations on a Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (FMCT).
- Strengthening Nuclear Security:
- India places importance on securing its nuclear assets and preventing unauthorized access. It engages in international efforts to strengthen nuclear security protocols.
- Energy Security:
- India’s nuclear diplomacy also involves securing access to nuclear technology for peaceful purposes, including energy generation. The country faces energy challenges and seeks diverse sources, including nuclear, to meet its growing energy demands.
- Regional Stability:
- India’s nuclear diplomacy aims to contribute to regional stability. It engages in dialogue with neighboring countries to build confidence and reduce the risk of nuclear conflict.
India’s nuclear diplomacy reflects a balance between national security imperatives, global non-proliferation norms, and the pursuit of peaceful uses of nuclear energy. It seeks to position India as a responsible nuclear power with a commitment to disarmament and global security.
