• The Marathas played a major role in the decline of Mughal power. Under the dynamic leadership of Shivaji, they posed a strong challenge to Mughal power during the 1670s. By the middle of the 18th century, they had succeeded in displacing Mughal power in central India. Nayak rule ended in 1674 in Thanjavur, when the Maratha General Venkoji (half brother of Shivaji) leading the Bijapur forces invaded Thanjavur and succeeded in establishing Maratha rule in the Tamil region. Maratha rule in Thanjavur which started from 1674 continued until the death of Serfoji II in 1832.

Factors that facilitated the rise of Marathas

Physical Features

• The physical features of the Maratha Country played an important role in distinguishing them from the rest of the people of India. The scarcity of rains in Maratha and the difficulties of finding livelihood, developed among the Marathas a spirit of self-reliance and hard work.
• The mountainous territory gave security to the Marathas from outside invaders. It also made them hardy soldiers who were not afraid of difficulties and hardship. Marathas avoided direct battles with the Mughal armies that were equipped with strong cavalry and deadly cannons. “Guerrilla warfare” was their strength. They possessed the ability to plan and execute the surprise lightning attacks at night. Further, they exhibited skills to change their tactics according to the battle situation without waiting for orders from a superior officer.

Bhakti Movement

• The spread of the Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra inculcated the spirit of oneness among the Marathas. The main teachings of the leaders were Bhakti or devotion to God and equality of all believers before God without any distinction of class or birth. The Bhakti Movement united the people of Maharashtra in a common love of man and faith in one God. The important leaders of the Bhakti Movement were Sant Tukaram.2 Ramdas, Varman Pandit and Eknath.

Literature and Language

• The literature and language of the Marathas also acted as a unifying force. The hymns of Tukaram were sung by all the classes and they served as a bond of unity among people who belonged to different sections of society. The songs in Marathi Dialect and Marathi Language played an important role.

External causes

• The degeneration of Bijapur and Golkonda prompted the Marathas to unite and fight together. The Deccan wars against the Sultans of Bijapur, Golkonda and Ahmednagar had exhausted the Mughal treasury. Shivaji rallied the Marathas who lay scattered in many parts of Deccan under his leadership and built a mighty kingdom, with Raigarh (Raigad) as the capital.

Shivaji (1627–1680)

• Shivaji was born in Shivner near Junnar. He was the son of Shahji Bhonsle and Jijabai. Jijabai was the daughter of Jadhav Rao, the greatest Maratha Jagirdar of his time and a descendant of the Yadav Rulers of Dogiri. Shahji was a descendant of the Yadava rulers of Devagiri from his mother’s side and the Sisodias of Mewar on his father’s side. Shahji Bhonsle served under Malik Ambar (1548–1626), former slave, and the Abyssinian minister of Ahmed Shah of Ahmednagar. After the death of Malik Ambar, Shahji played a vital role in its politics. After the annexation of Ahmednagar by the Mughals, he entered the service of the Sultan of Bijapur.
• Shivaji and his mother were left under the care of Dadaji Kondadev who administered Shahji Bhonsle’s jagirs (land grants given in recognition of military or administrative services rendered) at Poona. Shivaji earned the goodwill of the Mavali peasants and chiefs, who were a martial people with knowledge about the hilly areas around Poona. Shivaji made himself familiar with the hilly areas around Poona. Religious heads, Ramdas and Tukaram, also influenced Shivaji. Ramdas was regarded by Shivaji as his guru.

Shivaji’s Conquests

• Shivaji took advantage of the confusion prevailing in Bijapur and in1646 captured the Fort of Torna. After this the Fort of Raigarh was captured and almost wholly rebuilt. Then he snatched Supa from his uncle, Shmbhaji Mohite. After the death of Dadaji Kondadev, Shivaji took over the whole of the Estate of his father. He also brought the Forts of Baramati and Indapura under his direct control. He also captured Purandhar and Kondana.Shivaji’s military conquests made him a legendary figure in the Maratha region.

Confrontation against Bijapur

• After Mohammad Adilshah of Bijapur died in November 1656, Adilshah II, a young man of eighteen, succeeded him. Aurangzeb captured Bidar, Kalyani and Purandar in 1657. So, both Shivaji and the Bijapur Sultan were forced to make peace with Aurangzeb. At this time Shah Jahan fell ill, and a war of succession was imminent in Delhi. Aurangzeb left for Delhi to take part in it. Using this opportunity, Shivaji invaded north Konkan and captured the cities of Kalyan, Bhivandi and fort of Mahuli.

Shivaji and Afzal Khan, 1659

• As there was no danger from the Mughals, Bijapur Sultan decided to attack Shivaji. Afzal Khan was sent with a huge army. He boasted that he would bring the “mountain-rat” in chains. But, he found fighting in the mountainous country extremely difficult. So, he planned to trick Shivaji but he was outwitted. The Maratha forces ravaged South Konkan and Kolhapur district and captured the fort of Panhala. The Sultan of Bijapur himself led the army and the war dragged on for more than a year. Nothing substantial was gained. Finally, after negotiations, Shivaji was recognised as the ruler of the territories in his possession.

Shivaji and the Mughals

• The Mughal emperor Aurangazeb was anxiously watching the rise of Maratha power under Shivaji. He sent the Mughal governor of the Deccan, Shaista Khan against Shivaji. Shivaji suffered a defeat at the hands of the Mughal forces and lost Poona. But Shivaji once again made a bold attack on Shaista Khan’s military camp at Poona in 1663, killed his son and wounded Khan. This daring attack affected the prestige of Khan and he was recalled by Aurangazeb.
• In 1664, Shivaji attacked Surat, the chief port of the Mughals and plundered it. This time Aurangazeb sent Raja Jai Singh of Amber to fight against Shivaji. He made elaborate preparations and succeeded in besieging the Purander fort where Shivaji lodged his family and treasure. Shivaji opened negotiations with Jai Singh and the Treaty of Purander was signed in 1665.
• Of the 35 forts that Shivaji controlled, 23 were to be given to the Mughals in accordance with the terms of the contract. Shivaji was to receive the other 12 forts in exchange for his service and fidelity to the Mughal Empire. On the other hand, the Mughals acknowledged Shivaji’s claim to control a portion of the Bijapur Empire.

Coronation

• On 6 June 1674, Shivaji was crowned at Raigarh. He assumed the title of “Chhatrapathi”( “supreme king ”).

Shivaji’s Administrative System

• Shivaji was a not only a great warrior but a good administrator too. He had an advisory council to assist him in his day-to-day administration. This council of eight ministers was known as Ashta Pradhan. Its functions were advisory. The eight ministers were:
• The Mukhya Pradhan or Peshwa or prime minister whose duty was to look after the general welfare and interests of the State. He officiated for the king in his absence.
• The Amatya or finance minister checked and countersigned all public accounts of the kingdom.
• The Walkia-Nawis or Mantri maintained the records of the king’s activities and the proceedings in the court.
• Summant or Dabir or foreign secretary was to advise king on all matters of war and peace and to receive ambassadors and envoys from other countries.
• Sachiv or Shuru Nawis or home secretary was to look after the correspondence of the king with the power to revise the drafts. He also checked the accounts of the Parganas.
• Pandit Rao or Danadhyaksha or Sadar and Muhtasib or ecclesiastical head was in charge of religion, ceremonies and charities. He was the judge of canon law and censor of public morals.
• Nyayadhish or chief justice was responsible for civil and military justice.
• Sari Naubat or commander-in-chief was in charge of recruitment, organization and discipline of the Army.
• With the exception of the Nyayadhish and Pandit Rao, all the other ministers were to command armies and lead expeditions. All royal letters, charters and treaties had to get the seal of the King and the Peshwa and the endorsement of the wfour ministers other than the Danadyaksha, Nyayadhisha and Senapati. There were eighteen departments under the charge of the various ministers.

Provincial Government

• For the sake of administrative convenience, Shivaji divided the kingdom into four provinces, each under a viceroy. The provinces were divided into a number of Pranths. The practice of granting jagirs was abandoned and all officers were paid in cash. Even when the revenues of a particular place were assigned to any official, his only link was with the income generated from the property. He had no control over the people associated with it. No office was to be hereditary.

Army

• Shivaji was a military genius and no wonder he took pains to put the army on an efficient footing. It was the practice of the Marathas to work for half the year upon their field and to spend the dry season in the saddle on active service. Such a system was considered to be defective by Shivaji and he introduced the system of keeping a regular standing army. During the rainy season, it was provided with quarters and the soldiers were given regular salaries for the whole year.
• The army consisted of four divisions: infantry, cavalry, an elephant corps and artillery. Though the soldiers were good at guerrilla methods of warfare, at a later stage they were also trained in conventional warfare.

• The infantry was divided into regiments, brigades. The smallest unit with nine soldiers was headed by a Naik (corporal). Each unit with 25 horsemen was placed under one havildar (equivalent to the rank of a sergeant). Over five havildars were placed under one jamaladar and over ten jamaladars under one hazari.

Sari Naubat was the supreme commander of cavalry. The cavalry was divided into two classes:

• The bargirs (soldiers whose horses were given by the state) and
• The shiledars (mercenary horsemen who had to find their own horses).
• There were water-carriers and farriers too.

Revenue System

• Shivaji abolished the system of taxing of farmers. A direct arrangement was made by the Government with cultivators.“The Ryots were not subject to the authority of the Zamindars, Deshmukhs and Desais who had no right to exercise the powers of a political superior or harass the Ryots. The land was carefully surveyed with the help of a measuring rod or Kathi.
• The share of the state was fixed at 30% of the produce but later on it was increased to 40% when other taxes were abolished. The cultivator was allowed to pay in cash or in kind. The state encourged agriculture. Also during the time of famine, the Government advanced money and grain to the cultivators which were to be paid back in instalments later on.

Chauth and Sardeshmukhi

As the revenue collected from the state was insufficient to meet its requirements, Shivaji collected two taxes, Chauth and Sardeshmukhi, from the adjoining territories of his empire, the Mughal provinces and the territories of the Sultan of Bijapur. Chauth was one-fourth of the revenue of the district conquered by the Marthas. Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% of the revenue which Shivaji collected by virtue of his position as Sardeshmukh. Sardeshmukh was the superior head of many Desais or Deshmukhs. Shivaji claimed that he was the hereditary Sardeshmukh of his country.

Justice

• The administration of justice was of a primitive nature. No regular courts were set up and no regular procedure was laid down. The Panchayats continued to decide disputes in the villages. The system of ordeals was common. Criminal cases were tried by the Patels. Appeals in both civil and criminal cases were heard by the Nyayadhish who was guided by the Smritis. Hazir Majlis was the final Court of appeal.

Marathas after Shivaji

• Shivaji was really a constructive genius and nation-builder. His rise from jagirdar to Chatrapathi was spectacular. He unified the Marathas and remained a great enemy of the Mughal empire. He was a daring soldier and a brilliant administrator.
• However, Shivaji’s last days were not happy. His eldest son Sambhaji deserted him and joined the Mughal camp. Although he returned, he was imprisoned and sent to Panhala fort by Aurangzeb. The relentless campaigns affected Shivaji’s health. He died in 1680 at the age of 53.
• At the time of his death, Shivaji’s kingdom comprised the Western Ghats and the Konkan between Kalyan and Goa. The provinces in the south included western Karnataka extending from Belgaum to the bank of Tungabhadra.

Successors of Shivaji

• There ensued a war of succession after the death of Shivaji between his sons, Shambaji and Rajaram. Shambaji emerged victorious but later he was captured and executed by the Mughals. Rajaram succeeded the throne but the Mughals made him to flee to the Ginjee fort. He died at Satara. He was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji II with his mother Tara Bai as regent. The next ruler was Shahu in whose reign the Peshwas rose to power.

The Peshwas (1713-1818)

Balaji Viswanath (1713–1720)

• The Peshwa or the prime minister was the foremost minister in the Ashta Pradhan, the council of ministers of Shivaji. The Peshwas gained more powers and became dominant in the eighteenth Century. Balaji Viswanath was the first powerful Peshwa. He was born in 1660 A.D., in a Bhatt family of chitpawan Brahmins at Shrivardhan Gram in Konkan.
• He assisted the Maratha emperor Shahu to consolidate his control over the kingdom that had been plagued by a civil war. Kanhoji Angre was the most powerful naval chief on the western coast. During the civil war Kanhoji had supported Tarabai. The Peshwa convinced him of the common danger from the Europeans and secured his loyalty to Shahu. The practice of granting jagirs was revived. And the office of Peshwa was made hereditary.

Baji Rao I (1720-1740)

• Baji Rao was the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath. He succeeded his father as Peshwa at the age young age of twenty. The Maratha power reached its zenith under him. He initiated the system of confederacy among the Maratha chiefs. Under this system, each Maratha chief was assigned a territory which could be administered autonomously. As a result, many Maratha families became prominent and established their authority in different parts of India. They were the Gaekwad at Baroda, the Bhonsle at Nagpur, the Holkars at Indore, the Scindias at Gwalior, and the Peshwas at Poona.

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-1761)

• Balaji Baji Rao succeeded his father as Peshwa. During his time full control of the Maratha kingdom came under the Peshwa.
• Peshwa entered into an agreement with the Mughal Emperor in 1752. According to it the Peshwa gave assurance to the Mughal Emperor that he would protect the Mughal Empire from internal and external enemies for which the Chauth of the northwest provinces and the total revenue of the Agra and Ajmer provinces would be collected by the Marathas.

The Third Battle of Panipat, 1761

When Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India, it became the responsibility of the Marathas to protect India as per the agreement. The Marathas fought very bravely against Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761. But they got defeated. Many Maratha leaders and thousands of soldiers died in this battle. Balaji Baji Rao also died on hearing the sad end of this battle. Also, this battle gave a death blow to the Maratha power.

After the battle of Panipat, Abdali recognized Shah Alam II as the Emperor of Delhi. He got an annual tribute. The Marathas, though they received a severe blow initially, managed to restore their power within ten years in the north by becoming the guardian of the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam.

Peshwa Madhav Rao I (1761–1772) and His Successors

• Madhav Rao tried to regain the Maratha power which was lost in the battle of Panipat. In 1763 a fierce battle was fought with the Nizam of Hyderabad. His expeditions (1765–1767) against Haider Ali of Mysore were successful. However Haider Ali soon recovered almost all his lost territories. But Madhav Rao regained them in 1772 and Haider Ali was forced to sign a humiliating treaty.
• The Peshwa reasserted control over northern India by defeating the Rohillas (Pathans) and subjugating the Rajput states and Jat Chiefs. Shah Alam II, the fugitive Emperor, was in Allahabad under the protection of the British. In 1771, the Marathas brought him back to Delhi. The Emperor ceded Kora and Allahabad to them. But the sudden death of Peshwa in 1772 brought an end to his glorious career. Soon the peshwa empire saw a downfall .Baji Rao II, the son of Raghunath Rao became the last Peshwa.