Before the implementation of land reforms, various land tenure systems existed in the Hyderabad State, each with its own structure and implications for land ownership and agriculture:

Inamdars:

• Inam lands were granted by the Nizam to poets, craftsmen, religious institutions, and lower-cadre employees in lieu of wages. The beneficiaries, known as inamdars, often held significant tracts of land. The system perpetuated absentee landlordism and limited the rights of the actual tillers.

Jagirdars:

• Jagirdars were granted villages by the Nizam as a reward for loyalty or service. They acted as intermediaries between the Nizam’s government and the farmers, collecting revenue and exerting control over large areas. The jagirdar system was widespread, affecting thousands of villages and a significant portion of the state’s land.

Sarf-e-Khas:

• These were lands retained by the Nizam for his personal expenditure. The revenue from these lands was directly collected by the Nizam’s treasury. The Sarf-e-Khas lands covered a substantial area, including many villages, and were a significant part of the Nizam’s private estate.

Samsthanas:

• Samsthanas were smaller princely states or estates within the Hyderabad State, ruled by Hindu chieftains who paid tribute to the Nizam. These rulers acted as middlemen, collecting revenue from the farmers and enjoying considerable autonomy over their subjects and resources. The largest samsthanas were powerful entities with control over vast areas and numerous villages.

Khalsa, Deewani, or Ryotwari System

• In Hyderabad State, about 60% of cultivated land was under the direct rule of the Nizam, known as Khalsa lands. The government directly collected revenue from the farmers in these areas. Despite the direct government control, a three-tier system of intermediaries existed, where middlemen known as deshmukh, sir-deshmukh, desai, sir-desai, pundit, and karnam were responsible for collecting land revenue through auctions. These intermediaries often exploited farmers, extracting excessive revenues and occupying large tracts of land, leading to the emergence of powerful landlords.

After the abolition of the jagirs, the Nizam’s government reclassified Khalsa lands as Deewani or Ryotwari lands, where cultivators had ownership rights and direct contact with the government. This system, known as the Ryotwari system, theoretically provided more security to the farmers. However, in practice, the power of the middlemen persisted, and these intermediaries continued to exploit the farmers, eventually becoming large landlords themselves.

• Despite the Survey Settlement Policy introduced by Salar Jung I in 1875 to promote the Ryotwari system and regularize land ownership, the exploitation by landlords intensified. The intermediaries failed to protect the tillers of the land and instead oppressed them, leading to widespread alienation of farmers from their lands. Many farmers were reduced to tenants or agricultural laborers, while the landlords, leveraging their economic, social, and political power, maintained dominance over the villages. The number of landlords increased dramatically from one lakh in 1891 to 76 lakhs by 1921, and their exploitation was so severe that the income of 110 zamindars exceeded that of the entire Hyderabad State.
• In response to these issues, the Nizam’s government introduced the Land Records System in 1918 to maintain updated agricultural land records and ownership details. In 1938, a separate Department of Land Records was established under a commissioner to ensure an effective land records system, reflecting the government’s recognition of the need for better land management.