Explanation:

• Statement 1 – Correct: Permanent Settlement (1793) was introduced by Lord Cornwallis.
• Statement 2 – Correct: Cornwallis Code (1793) separated revenue and judicial functions.
• Statement 3 – Incorrect: Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784) was founded during Warren Hastings’ tenure.

Lord Cornwallis (1786–1793)

• Led the Third Mysore War (1790–1792) against Tipu Sultan.
• War ended with the Treaty of Seringapatam (1792).
• Introduced the Cornwallis Code (1793) with major judicial reforms.
• Established separation of revenue administration and civil judiciary.
• Implemented the Permanent Settlement of Bengal (1793).
• Initiated Europeanisation of administration.
• Laid the foundation of a regular civil service system with emphasis on integrity and hierarchy.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 – Correct: The Regulating Act of 1773 was passed during Hastings’ tenure.
• Statement 2 – Correct: The Rohilla War (1774) occurred under Warren Hastings.
• Statement 3 – Incorrect: The Permanent Settlement (1793) was introduced by Lord Cornwallis, not Hastings.

Warren Hastings (1773–1785)

• First Governor-General of Bengal under the Regulating Act of 1773.
• Act of 1781 clearly defined powers between the Governor-General-in-Council and the Supreme Court at Calcutta.
• Pitt’s India Act, 1784 further regulated Company administration and increased British parliamentary control.
• Fought the Rohilla War (1774).
• Involved in the First Maratha War (1775–1782), concluded with the Treaty of Salbai (1782).
• Conducted the Second Mysore War (1780–1784) against Hyder Ali.
• Had strained relations with Chait Singh, Raja of Benaras, leading to his impeachment in England.
• Founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784) to promote Oriental studies.

Explanation:

• Doctrine of Lapse & annexation of Satara → 1848
• Second Anglo-Sikh War ends; Punjab annexed → 1849
• Railway Minute & first railway line (Bombay–Thane) → 1853
• Annexation of Awadh → 1856

Explanation:

• Sir George Barlow → Vellore Mutiny (1806)
• Lord Minto I → Treaty of Amritsar (1809)
• First Burmese War was under Lord Amherst, not Lord Hastings
• Lord Amherst → Capture of Bharatpur (1826)

Sir George Barlow (1805–1807)

• Governor-General of India.
• Faced the Vellore Mutiny (1806), an early military uprising by Indian sepoys.

Lord Minto I (1807–1813)

• Governor-General of India.
• Signed the Treaty of Amritsar (1809) with Ranjit Singh, recognising Sikh control over territories north of the Sutlej River.

Lord Hastings (1813–1823)

• Governor-General of India.
• Fought the Anglo-Nepal War (1814–1816), concluded by the Treaty of Sagauli (1816).
• Led the Third Maratha War (1817–1819), resulting in the dissolution of the Maratha Confederacy.
• Creation of the Bombay Presidency (1818).
• Suppressed the Pindaris (1817–1818).
• Signed the Treaty with Sindhia (1817).
• Ryotwari System introduced in Madras Presidency by Thomas Munro (1820).

Lord Amherst (1823–1828)

• Governor-General of India.
• Conducted the First Burmese War (1824–1826).
• Capture of Bharatpur (1826) after prolonged resistance.

Lord William Bentinck (1828–1835)

• First Governor-General of India under the Charter Act of 1833.
• Abolition of Sati (1829) and other cruel social practices.
• Suppression of Thugi (1830).
• Introduced educational reforms (1835) and made English the official language of administration.
• Annexation of Mysore (1831), Coorg (1834), and Central Cachar (1834).
• Signed the Treaty of Perpetual Friendship with Ranjit Singh.
• Abolished provincial courts of appeal and circuit courts set up by Cornwallis.
• Appointed Commissioners of Revenue and Circuit, strengthening administrative efficiency.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct: The Gandhi–Jinnah talks (1944), linked with C. Rajagopalachari’s CR Formula, failed during Lord Wavell’s tenure.
• Statement 2 is incorrect: The Cabinet Mission proposals were made in 1946, during Lord Wavell’s tenure, not Mountbatten’s.

Lord Wavell (1944–1947)

• Served as the Viceroy of India during the final phase of British rule.
• C. Rajagopalachari’s CR Formula (1944) proposed compromise on Pakistan; Gandhi–Jinnah talks failed.
• Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference (1945) aimed to resolve the political deadlock but failed due to disagreements, especially on representation.
• End of the Second World War (1945) changed Britain’s priorities and hastened Indian independence.
• Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) proposed a united India with a federal structure; it was accepted by the Congress initially.
• Direct Action Day (16 August 1946) observed by the Muslim League, leading to widespread communal violence.
• Elections to the Constituent Assembly (1946) held; Interim Government formed by the Congress in September 1946.
• British Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced on 20 February 1947 that British rule in India would end by June 1948.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct: Titu Mir led Muslim tenants in West Bengal against oppressive landlords and British indigo planters; it is often regarded as the first armed peasant uprising against the British.
• Statement 2 is incorrect: The uprising soon acquired a religious hue and later merged with the Wahabi movement.

Explanation:

• The Surat Salt Agitations (1844) in Gujarat involved local attacks on Europeans.
• The unrest was caused by the British increase in salt duty, which affected daily consumption and livelihoods.

Explanation:

• Pahariyas’ Rebellion (1778) → Raj Mahal Hills
• Chuar Uprisings → Midnapore district of Bengal
• Kol Mutiny (1831) → Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh etc. (Chhotanagpur region)
• Santhal Rebellion (1855–56) → Raj Mahal Hills

Tribal Revolts in India (18th–19th Century)

• Pahariyas’ Rebellion (1778)
  • Region: Raj Mahal Hills
  • Cause: Resistance to British expansion into tribal lands.
• Chuar Uprisings (1766–1772, 1795–1816)
  • Region: Midnapore district, Bengal
  • Leaders: Sham Ganjan, Durjan Singh, Madhab Singh
  • Cause: Oppressive revenue demands and economic hardship.
• Kol Mutiny (1831)
  • Region: Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Palamau, Manbhum
  • Leader: Buddho Bhagat
  • Cause: Alienation of tribal lands and British interference.
• Ho and Munda Uprisings (1820–22, 1831–37, 1899–1900)
  • Region: Chhotanagpur plateau
  • Leader (1899–1900): Birsa Munda
  • Cause: Exploitation by zamindars, missionaries, and moneylenders.
• Santhal Rebellion (1855–56)
  • Region: Raj Mahal Hills (Bihar)
  • Leaders: Sidhu and Kanhu
  • Cause: Oppression by zamindars, mahajans, and British officials.
• Khond Uprisings (1837–1856)
  • Region: Hilly tracts from Tamil Nadu to Bengal
  • Leader: Chakra Bisoi
  • Cause: British interference in tribal customs and governance.
• Koya Revolts (1803, 1840–1862, 1879–80)
  • Region: Eastern Godavari region, Andhra Pradesh
  • Leaders: Tomma Sora, Raja Anantayyar
  • Cause: Exploitation by police, moneylenders, and forest regulations.
• Bhil Revolts (1817–19, 1913)
  • Region: Khandesh, Dhar, Malwa, Western Ghats, southern Rajasthan
  • Cause: Resistance to British rule and demand for Bhil autonomy.
• Koli Risings (1829, 1839, 1844–48)
  • Region: Western Ghats
  • Cause: Opposition to British revenue and forest policies.
• Ramosi Risings (1822–29, 1839–41)
  • Region: Western Ghats
  • Leader: Chittur Singh
  • Cause: Loss of traditional rights and livelihood.
• Khasi Uprising (1829–33)
  • Region: Between Garo and Jaintia Hills, Sylhet
  • Leader: Tirath Singh
  • Participants: Khasis, Garos, Khamptis, Singhphos
  • Cause: British attempt to build roads and extend control.
• Singhphos’ Rebellion (1830–31, 1843)
  • Region: Assam–Burma border
  • Leader (1843): Nirang Phidu
  • Cause: British encroachment into tribal territories.

Explanation:

1. Raj Mahal Hills – Sidhu and Kanhu – 1855–56: Correct. This refers to the Santhal Rebellion.
2. Chhotanagpur region – Buddho Bhagat – 1831: Correct. Buddho Bhagat led the Kol Mutiny (1831).
3. Eastern Godavari region – Chakra Bisoi – 1879–80: Incorrect.
   • Eastern Godavari (Koya Revolts) → Leaders were Tomma Sora and Raja Anantayyar.
   • Chakra Bisoi led the Khond Uprisings, not Koya Revolts.
4. Assam–Burma Border – Nirang Phidu – 1843: Correct. Related to the Singhphos’ Rebellion.

Explanation:

• The Gadkaris were a hereditary military class in Kolhapur (Maharashtra).
• Their revolt was driven by unemployment after British annexations and agrarian grievances, reflecting early resistance to colonial disruption.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 – Correct: The 19th Native Infantry at Berhampore mutinied in February 1857 and was later disbanded.
• Statement 2 –Correct: Mangal Pandey was executed on April 8, 1857 after firing at the sergeant major at Barrackpore.
• Statement 3 –Incorrect: The 7th Awadh Regiment defied officers on May 3, before the Meerut uprising, not after.

Beginning of the Revolt of 1857

• The Revolt of 1857 began at Meerut on 10 May 1857, about 58 km from Delhi.
• It rapidly spread over a vast region—from Punjab in the north, Narmada in the south, Bihar in the east, and Rajputana in the west.
• Early signs of discontent before Meerut:
  • 19th Native Infantry, Berhampore (Feb 1857) refused to use the new Enfield rifle and mutinied; regiment was disbanded in March 1857.
  • Mangal Pandey, a sepoy of the 34th Native Infantry, fired at his sergeant major at Barrackpore.
  • He was executed on 8 April 1857, and his regiment was disbanded in May 1857.
  • The 7th Awadh Regiment defied its officers on 3 May 1857 and was also disbanded.
• Immediate trigger at Meerut:
  • On 24 April 1857, 90 soldiers of the 3rd Native Cavalry refused to accept greased cartridges.
  • On 9 May 1857, 85 soldiers were dismissed, sentenced to 10 years’ imprisonment, and put in fetters.
• Outbreak of revolt:
  • On 10 May 1857, Indian soldiers at Meerut:
    • Freed their imprisoned comrades,
    • Killed British officers,
    • Declared open rebellion.
  • After sunset, the mutineers marched towards Delhi, marking the formal beginning of the Revolt of 1857.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 – Correct: The Native (Civil) Marriage Act, 1872 excluded Hindus, Muslims and other recognised religions, limiting its impact.
• Statement 2 – Correct: The Age of Consent Act, 1891, influenced by B. M. Malabari, raised the age to 12 years for girls.
• Statement 3 – Incorrect: The Sarda Act (1930) fixed the age at 18 for boys and 14 for girls, not 21 and 18.

Controlling Child Marriage – Legislative Measures

• Native Marriage Act / Civil Marriage Act, 1872
  • First legislative attempt to prohibit child marriage.
  • Had limited impact as it did not apply to Hindus, Muslims, and other recognised faiths.
• Age of Consent Act, 1891
  • Enacted due to the persistent efforts of Behramji M. Malabari, a Parsi reformer.
  • Prohibited the marriage of girls below 12 years of age.
• Sarda Act (Child Marriage Restraint Act), 1930
  • Further raised the minimum marriage age:
    • Boys: 18 years
    • Girls: 14 years
• Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act, 1978 (Post-Independence)
  • Raised the legal age of marriage to:
    • Girls: 18 years
    • Boys: 21 years
  • Established the current legal standard for minimum marriage age in India.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 – Correct: Rammohan Roy firmly believed in monotheism and rational religious thought.
• Statement 2 – Correct: He argued that Vedanta is based on reason, and reason can override scripture if needed.
• Statement 3 – Correct: He upheld human dignity, social equality and modern scientific thinking.
• Raja Rammohan Roy (1772–1833) is often regarded as the Father of the Indian Renaissance and the maker of Modern India.
• He was a man of versatile genius, combining social reform, religious thought, and rational inquiry.
• He believed in a modern scientific outlook, human dignity, and social equality.
• He strongly advocated monotheism.
• He authored Gift to Monotheists (1809) to promote the idea of one universal God.
• He translated the Vedas and the five Upanishads into Bengali to show that ancient Hindu scriptures support monotheism.
• In 1814, he founded the Atmiya Sabha (Society of Friends) in Calcutta.
• The Atmiya Sabha aimed to:
• Propagate monotheistic ideals of Vedanta
• Oppose idolatry
• Challenge caste rigidities
• Criticise meaningless rituals and other social evils
• Deeply influenced by rationalist ideas, he argued that:
• Vedanta is based on reason
• If reason demands, even a departure from scriptures is justified

Explanation:

• Statement 1 – Correct: The Deoband Movement focused on pure Islamic teachings based on Quran and Hadis.
• Statement 2 – Incorrect: Support for Western education and the British was the goal of the Aligarh Movement, not Deoband.
• Statement 3 – Correct: It aimed to sustain the spirit of resistance (jihad) against foreign rulers.
• Deoband School (Darul Uloom Deoband) was an orthodox revivalist movement organised by Muslim ulema.
• Objectives:
• To propagate the pure teachings of the Quran and Hadis among Muslims.
• To keep alive the spirit of jihad against foreign (colonial) rule.
• The movement began in 1866 at Deoband, in Saharanpur district (United Provinces).
• It was founded by Mohammad Qasim Nanotavi (1832–1880) and Rashid Ahmed Gangohi (1828–1905).
• The Darul Uloom functioned as an Islamic academic centre to train religious leaders (ulema) for the Muslim community.
• The movement focused on moral and religious regeneration rather than political or material advancement.
• Instruction at Deoband was based strictly on original Islamic teachings, rejecting Western influences.
• In contrast to the Aligarh Movement, which promoted Western education and cooperation with the British, the Deoband Movement opposed Westernisation.
• The Deoband School emphasised religious orthodoxy, discipline, and revival of Islamic values.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 – Correct: Reformers like Sree Narayana Guru and N. Kumaran Asan laid the ideological foundation for temple entry reforms.
• Statement 2 – Correct: The Vaikom Satyagraha (1924) demanded access to public roads and temples for the untouchables.
• Statement 3 – Correct: The Temple Entry Proclamation of 1936 by the Maharaja of Travancore opened government-controlled temples to all Hindus.
• Temple Entry Movement aimed at ending untouchability and securing the right of all Hindus to enter temples and use temple roads.
• Early groundwork was laid by social reformers like Sree Narayana Guru and N. Kumaran Asan, who challenged caste discrimination through reformist ideas.
• T.K. Madhavan, a prominent reformer and editor of Deshabhimani, took up the temple entry issue with the Travancore administration, but initial efforts failed.
• Vaikom Satyagraha (1924) became the first organised mass movement for temple entry in Kerala.
• Launched at Vaikom in northern Travancore.
• Led by K.P. Kesava.
• Demanded opening of temple roads and temples to untouchables.
• The movement received all-India support, with jathas from Punjab and Madurai joining the agitation.
• Mahatma Gandhi toured Kerala and extended moral and political support to the movement.
• After the suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement (1931), the Temple Entry Movement was revived in Kerala.
• Inspired by K. Kelappan.
• Subramaniyam Tirumambu, known as the “singing sword of Kerala”, led volunteers to Guruvayur.
• Leaders like P. Krishna Pillai and A.K. Gopalan participated as satyagrahis.
• Historic outcome:
• On November 12, 1936, the Maharaja of Travancore issued the Temple Entry Proclamation, opening all government-controlled temples to all Hindus.
• Extension beyond Kerala:
• A similar reform was carried out in Madras Presidency (1938) under C. Rajagopalachari.
• Significance:
• Marked a major victory against caste-based discrimination.
• Strengthened the social reform dimension of the Indian national movement.

Explanation:

• Dev Samaj was founded in 1887 at Lahore by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri, who was earlier associated with the Brahmo Samaj.
• It functioned as a religious and social reform movement.

Dev Samaj

• Founded in 1887 at Lahore by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri (1850–1927), a former follower of the Brahmo Samaj.
• It was a religious and social reform movement.
• Emphasised:
• Eternity of the soul
• Supremacy of the guru
• Importance of good actions (ethical living)
• Advocated ideal social behaviour, such as:
• Not accepting bribes
• Avoiding intoxicants
• Abstaining from non-vegetarian food
• Keeping away from violence
• Teachings were compiled in the book Deva Shastra.
• Agnihotri opposed child marriage and supported moral reform.

Explanation:

Statement I – Correct

• Vasco da Gama’s voyage marked a turning point in world history. By rounding the Cape of Good Hope, he established the first direct sea route between Europe and India, reaching Calicut in May 1498. This broke the long-standing Arab–Venetian monopoly over Indian Ocean trade.

Statement II – Correct

• The Portuguese objective in India was primarily commercial, especially to gain a monopoly over the lucrative spice trade (pepper, cloves, cinnamon).
• Although they often claimed a religious mission of spreading Christianity, this was largely a justification for economic and political expansion. Military force and fortified settlements were used to dominate trade routes.

Statement III – Correct

Alfonso de Albuquerque was the real architect of Portuguese power in India. He:

• Captured Goa in 1510,
• Strengthened Portuguese control over key ports,
• Made Goa the administrative and commercial centre, which officially became the Portuguese capital in India in 1530.

Explanation:

• All the listed crops are New World crops that reached India through Portuguese colonial trade networks around 1600 AD.
• The Portuguese played a crucial role in the Columbian Exchange, introducing American crops into Asia via Goa and coastal trade routes.
• Important introductions include:
  • Sweet potato, cassava – staple tuber crops
  • Tomato, chillies – transformed Indian cuisine
  • Cashew nut, groundnut – plantation and commercial crops
  • American cotton, tobacco, rubber – industrial and cash crops

Explanation:

• The Cartaz System was a naval pass or trade license introduced by the Portuguese in the 16th century to regulate and monopolize maritime trade in the Indian Ocean. Ships without a cartaz were treated as hostile and could be seized.

Additional Information:

• It helped the Portuguese establish dominance over Indian Ocean trade routes.
• The Portuguese also introduced tobacco cultivation, printing press, and promoted shipbuilding at centres like Calicut and Gujarat.
• Their architectural influence is visible in Gothic-style churches, especially in Goa.

Explanation:

• Statement 1: Correct : The Dutch East India Company (VOC) was established in 1602, and the first Dutch factory in India was set up at Masulipattam in 1605.
• Statement 2: Correct : Pulicat served as the main Dutch centre from 1616, but it was later replaced by Nagapattinam.
• Statement 3: Incorrect : The Battle of Colachel (1741) was fought between the Dutch and Marthanda Varma of Travancore, not the British.
  The decisive British defeat of the Dutch occurred later at the Battle of Bedara (1759).

Explanation:

Under the ryoti system, indigo cultivation was carried out on the land of the ryots (peasants) rather than on plantation land owned by the planters. The key features were:

• Ryots were forced to sign a contract (satta) with the planter.
• The contract bound the ryot to grow indigo on at least 25% of his landholding.
• Planters provided seeds and drilling equipment, while the ryots supplied land, labour, and bore the agricultural risk.
• In return, ryots received cash advances at low interest, which trapped them in a cycle of de

Explanation:

• Nij cultivation refers to indigo grown on land directly owned or controlled by the planter using hired labour.
• Ryoti cultivation was carried out on the land of ryots (peasants) under compulsory contracts with planters.
• Bigha is a traditional unit of land measurement; in Bengal it was standardised by the British to about one-third of an acre.
• Mahal in British revenue records denotes a revenue estate, which could consist of a village or a group of villages.

Additional Information :

• Under the ryoti system, ryots were forced to cultivate indigo on at least 25% of their landholding.
• High costs of ploughs, labour shortages, and resistance from peasants limited the expansion of nij cultivation.
• By the late 19th century, less than 25% of indigo land was under nij cultivation, with the majority under the ryoti system.

Explanation:

The Government of India Act, 1919 introduced the system of Dyarchy in the provinces. Under this arrangement:

• Provincial subjects were divided into two categories:
  • Reserved subjects (e.g., law and order, land revenue, irrigation, forests), administered by the Governor and executive councillors, not responsible to the legislature.
  • Transferred subjects (e.g., education, public health, agriculture, local self-government), administered by Indian ministers responsible to the provincial legislative councils.
• This created a dual system of governance within the provinces, hence the term Dyarchy (meaning double rule).

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct:
  • After the English (Glorious) Revolution of 1688, the Whigs opposed the monopoly enjoyed by the East India Company.
  • This led to the creation of a rival English trading company, which attempted to secure trading privileges in India, notably by sending Sir William Norris to the Mughal court.
• Statement 2 is correct:
  • The rival company proved financially unsuccessful.
  • Under pressure from the British Crown and Parliament, the two English companies were amalgamated in 1708 as the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies, commonly known as the East India Company.

Explanation:

• The First Carnatic War was not caused by local Indian factors alone.
• It was a direct extension of the Anglo-French rivalry in Europe, which arose due to the Austrian War of Succession (1740–1748).
• Although the French initially wished to avoid hostilities in India, the British naval action under Admiral Barnet, who seized French ships, escalated the conflict.
• In retaliation, the French captured Madras in 1746 under Admiral La Bourdonnais.
• The war in India ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), under which:
  • Madras was returned to the English
  • French gained territories in North America

Explanation:

• Statement 1: Correct: The English Company was a private enterprise, allowing quick and independent decisions.
• Statement 2: Correct : The English navy was superior, helping cut off French links with France.
• Statement 3: Correct : The English consistently prioritised commercial interests, ensuring sound finances during wars.

Explanation:

• Masulipatnam – established in 1605 (first Dutch factory in India)
• Pulicat – established in 1610
• Surat – established in 1616
• Chinsurah – established in 1653

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct:
  • The East India Company followed a merit-based selection system, appointing officers and troops based on skill, reliability, and professional competence.
  • They were placed under strict military discipline and operated with clear objectives, which enhanced organisational efficiency.
• Statement 2 is correct:
  • In contrast, many Indian administrative and military appointments were influenced by caste, clan, and personal loyalties rather than merit.
  • This often resulted in weak leadership, poor coordination, and divided loyalties, undermining effective resistance to Company expansion

Explanation:

• Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) played a key role in British military campaigns.
• Under his command, the British consolidated control over Southern India, except for small French and local enclaves.

Explanation:

• Mir Qasim – Correct: Former Nawab of Bengal; after defeats by the British, he organized a confederacy to challenge Company power.
• Shuja-ud-Daulah – Correct: Nawab of Awadh; actively participated in the battle as part of the anti-British alliance.
• Shah Alam II – Correct: Mughal Emperor; joined the confederacy and fought against the British East India Company.
• Hector Munro – Correct: Commander of the British East India Company’s forces; led the British army to victory at Buxar.
• The British victory led to the Treaty of Allahabad (1765), granting the Company Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, marking a decisive shift from trade to territorial rule.