Explanation:

• The term “trap” derives from the Swedish word for stairs (“trappa” or “trapp”), referencing the step-like landscape formed by the layered volcanic rocks.
• The Deccan Trap in the Deccan Plateau is primarily known for its volcanic origin and the resultant black soil that is particularly suitable for the cultivation of cotton and sugarcane. This region’s soil profile, formed from solidified lava flows over millions of years, provides the necessary nutrients and water retention properties ideal for these crops.

Explanation:

Red and Yellow Soil

• Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern part of the Deccan Plateau.
• Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, long stretch of area is occupied by red loamy soil. Yellow and red soils are also found in parts of Odisha and Chhattisgarh and in the southern parts of the middle Ganga plain.
• Option A is correct: The soil develops a reddish colour due to a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.

Alluvial soils

• Alluvial soils are widespread in the northern plains and the river valleys. These soils cover about 40 per cent of the total area of the country.
• Option B is correct: They are depositional soils, transported and deposited by rivers and streams. The alluvial soils vary in nature from sandy loam to clay. They are generally rich in potash but poor in phosphorous (phosphoric content).

Arid Soils

• Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. They are generally sandy in structure and saline in nature. Nitrogen is insufficient and the phosphate content is normal.
• Option C is correct: Lower horizons of the soil are occupied by ‘kankar’ layers because of the increasing calcium content downwards. The ‘Kankar’ layer formation in the bottom horizons restricts the infiltration of water, and as such when irrigation is made available, the soil moisture is readily available for a sustainable plant growth.

Laterite Soil

• The laterite soils develop in areas with high temperature and high rainfall. These are the result of intense leaching due to tropical rains.
• Option D is incorrect: Humus content of the soil is removed fast by bacteria that thrive well in high temperature. These soils are poor (not rich) in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium, while iron oxide and potash are in excess

Explanation:

El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

• During El Niño conditions, the usually present east to west trade winds weaken and an anomalous west to east flow develops.
• The west to east flow drives warm equatorial waters from the western Pacific towards the eastern Pacific and northern South America which replaces the cold Peruvian current.
• During an El Niño, sea level pressure tends to be lower in the eastern Pacific and higher in the western Pacific while the opposite tends to occur during a La Niña.
• This see-saw in atmospheric pressure between the eastern and western tropical Pacific is called the Southern Oscillation, often abbreviated as simply the SO.
• Since El Niño and the Southern Oscillation are related, the two terms are often combined into a single phrase, the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, or ENSO.
• Statement 1 is incorrect: Unlike ENSO, which is stationary, and restricted to Pacific Ocean, the MJO is an eastward moving disturbance and moves across the globe and traverses through Pacific and Indian Oceans.
• Statement 2 is correct: Both ENSO and MJO affect weather patterns across the globe including Indian monsoon. Hence, Though the MJO can produce impacts similar to those of ENSO, they appear only in weekly averages before changing, while ENSO, which once established, is associated with persistent features that last several seasons or longer over the Pacific Ocean basin. Hence, Statement 3 is incorrect.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct: Himalayan Rivers such as the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra originate from glaciers, ensuring a continuous flow throughout the year, which classifies them as perennial.
• Statement 2 is correct: The erosive power of these rivers, due to their steep gradients, especially in their upper courses, helps in forming deep valleys and gorges.
• Statement 3 is correct: As these rivers enter the plains, they spread out and slow down, depositing rich sediments that enhance the fertility of the soil, making them ideal for irrigation.
• Statement 4 is correct: In their lower courses, these rivers often meander and shift their courses due to the flat terrain and loose sediments, which can lead to the formation of new channels and even alter the landscape over time.

Explanation:

Statement 1 is correct.

What is a Heat Wave?

• A heat wave day is identified when the maximum temperature is above 44 degree C or when all the three following conditions are seen — when the region is facing unusually hot temperature, when the temperature is more than 36 degree C and when the departure from the normal temperature is more than 3.5 degree C.

Health Impacts of Heat Waves

The health impacts of Heat Waves typically involve

• dehydration,
• heat cramps,
• heat exhaustion and/or
• Heat stroke.

Statement 2 is incorrect. 

Researchers at Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) have developed an extended range prediction system which enables Real time prediction of heat waves two to three weeks in advance. Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) used this system to predict heat waves this year. This extended range prediction system enables Real time prediction of heat waves two to three weeks in advance. The system can predict heat waves with 70% accuracy, which is quite good considering that no real time prediction existed earlier.

Explanation:

• The Gandikota canyon, situated in Andhra Pradesh, is a stunning natural wonder carved out by the Pennar River over millions of years. This river’s forceful flow through the region has sculpted the landscape, creating the majestic canyon known for its breathtaking views and rugged terrain, earning it the nickname “Grand Canyon of India.”

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct: They are also known as Usara soils. Saline soils contain a larger proportion of sodium, potassium and magnesium, and thus, they are infertile, and do not support any vegetative growth. They have more salts, largely because of dry climate and poor drainage. They occur in arid and semi-arid regions, and in waterlogged and swampy areas. Their structure ranges from sandy to loamy. They lack in nitrogen and calcium. Saline soils are more widespread in western Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coast and in Sunderban areas of West Bengal. In the Rann of Kuchchh, the Southwest Monsoon brings salt particles and deposits there as a crust.
• Statement 2 is correct: Seawater intrusions in the deltas promote the occurrence of saline soils. In the areas of intensive cultivation with excessive use of irrigation, especially in areas of green revolution, the fertile alluvial soils are becoming saline. Excessive irrigation with dry climatic conditions promotes capillary action, which results in the deposition of salt on the top layer of the soil.
• Statement 3 is correct: In such areas, especially in Punjab and Haryana, farmers are advised to add gypsum to solve the problem of salinity in the soil.

Explanation:

Statement 1 is incorrect.

• The India Meteorological Department (IMD), also referred to as the Met Department, is an agency of the Ministry of Earth Sciences of the Government of India. It is the principal agency responsible for meteorological observations, weather forecasting and seismology.

Statement 2 is correct.

Its functions include as follows:

• Provide current weather and forecast/ meteorological information for optimum operation of weather.
• Sensitive activities like agriculture, irrigation, shipping aviation, offshore oil exploration etc.
• Warn against severe weather phenomena which affects life and property.
• Archive meteorological information for use in various activities.
• Detect and locate earthquakes and evaluate seismicity in different parts of country for development projects.

Explanation:

Explanation:

• Damodar River, river in northeastern India, rising with its many tributaries, notably the Bokaro and Konar, in the Chota Nagpur plateau of south-central Bihar state. It follows a generally eastward course for 368 miles (592 km) through West Bengal to join the Hugli (Hooghly) River southwest of Kolkata(Calcutta).

Explanation:

• The projects for development and maintenance of national waterways 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5 were implemented by Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) for providing / maintaining Inland Water Transport (IWT) infrastructure as per requirement.

Explanation:

Statement 1 is incorrect.

• Unlike El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which is stationary, the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) is an eastward moving disturbance of clouds, rainfall, winds, and pressure that traverses the planet in the tropics and returns to its initial starting point in 30 to 60 days, on average. This atmospheric disturbance is distinct from ENSO, which once established, is associated with persistent features that last several seasons or longer over the Pacific Ocean basin.
• There can be multiple MJO events within a season, and so the MJO is best described as intraseasonal tropical climate variability (i.e. varies on a week-to-week basis).

• The MJO consists of two parts, or phases: one is the enhanced rainfall (or convective) phase and the other is the suppressed rainfall phase.
  • In the enhanced convective phase, winds at the surface converge, and air is pushed up throughout the atmosphere. At the top of the atmosphere, the winds reverse (i.e., diverge). Such rising air motion in the atmosphere tends to increase condensation and rainfall.
  • In the suppressed convective phase, winds converge at the top of the atmosphere, forcing air to sink and, later, to diverge at the surface (Rui and Wang, 1990). As air sinks from high altitudes, it warms and dries, which suppresses rainfall.
• It is this entire dipole structure that moves west to east with time in the Tropics.
• The MJO can produce impacts similar to those of ENSO, but which appear only in weekly averages before changing, rather than persisting and therefore appearing in seasonal averages as is the case for ENSO.

Statement 2 is correct.

• MJO effects are most evident over the Indian Ocean and western equatorial Pacific.
• It influences the timing, development and strength of the major global monsoon patterns, including the Indian and Australian monsoons.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct: The Green Revolution in India began in the 1960s, marking a significant transition in agricultural practices which led to increased food production and turned India from a food-deficit to a food-surplus nation.
• Statement 2 is correct: Farm mechanization was a key component of the Green Revolution, focusing on the adoption of modern agricultural machinery like tractors, which increased the efficiency and productivity of farming practices.
• Statement 3 is correct: The introduction of high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, particularly for staple crops such as wheat and rice, was another critical aspect of the Green Revolution that contributed to enhanced agricultural output.
• Statement 4 is correct: Improved irrigation was essential to the success of the Green Revolution, facilitated by the construction of new dams and irrigation infrastructure that ensured more reliable water sources for farming.

Explanation:

• Pink Bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella) is a notorious pest within the American bollworm complex, known for its detrimental impact on cotton crops. It targets the developing parts of the cotton plant, specifically the flower buds (squares) and seed-containing bolls. The larvae from the eggs laid by the pink bollworm burrow into these bolls, where they consume the seeds, leading to significant damage to the lint and overall deterioration of the cotton’s quality.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is incorrect: To the northwest (not southeast) of the Aravali hills lies the Great Indian desert. It is a land of undulating topography dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans. This region receives low rainfall below 150 mm per year; hence, it has arid climate with low vegetation cover. It is because of these characteristic features that this is also known as Marusthali.It is believed that during the Mesozoic era, this region was under the sea. This can be corroborated by the evidence available at wood fossils park at Aakal and marine deposits around Brahmsar, near Jaisalmer
• Statement 2 is correct: Though the underlying rock structure of the desert is an extension of the Peninsular plateau, yet, due to extreme arid conditions, its surface features have been carved by physical weathering and wind actions.Some of the well pronounced desert land features present here are mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis (mostly in its southern part).On the basis of the orientation, the desert can be divided into two parts: the northern part is sloping towards Sindh and the southern towards the Rann of Kachchh.
• Statement 3 is correct: Most of the rivers in this region are ephemeral. The Luni river flowing in the southern part of the desert is of some significance. Ephemeral river flow for very short periods following heavy rainfall or snowmelt. For the rest of the year, river channel remains dry.Such rivers are generally found in arid and semi-arid areas.Low precipitation and high evaporation makes it a water deficit region. There are some streams which disappear after flowing for some distance and present a typical case of inland drainage by joining a lake or playa. The lakes and the playas have brackish water which is the main source of obtaining salt

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct as India is the largest producer of pulses, contributing 25% to global production
• Statement 2 is correct: The last decade due to the commitment and capabilities of the farmers, pulses production has grown by 60% from 171 lakh tonnes in 2014 to 270 lakh tonnes in 2024.
• Statement 3 is incorrect because Gram is actually the most dominant pulse, not the least, with the highest share in total pulse production in India.
• Statement 4 is incorrect: The contribution of Rabi season pulses is more than 60% in India.
• Statement 5 is correct: The government launched the Bharat pulse to support the farmers of the country and ensure the availability of reasonably-priced pulses for Indian citizens. Bharat Dal now has 25% market share of gram lentil within 4 months of its launch.

Explanation:

• Except Jharkhand, it passes through all the above given states

Explanation:

The Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas

• This part lies approximately between the Ravi in the west and the Kali (a tributary of Ghaghara) in the east. All the three ranges of Himalayas are prominent in this section. These are the Great Himalayan range, the Lesser Himalayas and the Shiwalik range
• In the Great Himalayan range, the valleys are mostly inhabited by the Bhotia’s. These are nomadic groups who migrate to ‘Bugyals’ (the summer grasslands in the higher reaches) during summer months and return to the valleys during winters.
• Bhotia or Bhotiya: The Bhotiya tribes are native (indigenous) people belonging to Himalayan Belt. Numbering around 120,000 people, they live predominantly in the northern states of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, Arunachal Pradesh and West Bengal. They have Mongolian features and are known as Pahari or hill people.

The Darjiling and Sikkim Himalayas

• They are flanked by Nepal Himalayas in the west and Bhutan Himalayas in the east. The higher reaches of this region are inhabited by Lepcha tribes while the southern part, particularly the Darjiling Himalayas, has a mixed population of Nepalis, Bengalis and tribals from Central India.
• Lepcha: These are among the indigenous peoples of Sikkim. Many Lepcha are also found in western and southwestern Bhutan, Tibet, Darjeeling, Mechi Zone of eastern Nepal and in the hills of West Bengal.

Explanation:

Season of Retreating Monsoon

• Statement 1 is incorrect: The months of October and November are known for retreating monsoons. By the end of September, the southwest monsoon becomes weak as the low pressure trough of the Ganga plain starts moving southward (not northward) in response to the southward (not northward) march of the sun.
• By the beginning of October, the low pressure covers northern parts of the Bay of Bengal and by early November, it moves over Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. By the middle of December, the centre of low pressure is completely removed from the Peninsula.
• Statement 2 and 3 are correct: The retreating southwest monsoon season is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature. The land is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes rather oppressive. This is commonly known as the ‘October heat’.
• In the second half of October, the mercury begins to fall rapidly, particularly in northern India. The weather in the retreating monsoon is dry in north India but it is associated with rain in the eastern part of the Peninsula. Here, October and November are the rainiest months of the year.
• The widespread rain in this season is associated with the passage of cyclonic depressions which originate over the Andaman Sea and manage to cross the eastern coast of the southern Peninsula. These tropical cyclones are very destructive. The thickly populated deltas of the Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri are their preferred targets.

Explanation:

Some Famous Local Storms of Hot Weather Season

First pair is correctly matched:

• Mango Shower: Towards the end of summer, there are pre-monsoon showers which are a common phenomenon in Kerala and coastal areas of Karnataka. Locally, they are known as mango showers since they help in the early ripening of mangoes.
• Blossom Shower: With this shower, coffee flowers blossom in Kerala and nearby areas.

Second and third pair are incorrectly matched

• Nor Westers: These are dreaded evening thunderstorms in Bengal and Assam. Their notorious nature can be understood from the local nomenclature of ‘Kalbaisakhi’, a calamity of the month of Baisakh. These showers are useful for tea, jute and rice cultivation. In Assam, these storms are known as “Bardoli Chheerha”.
• Loo: Hot, dry and oppressing winds blowing in the Northern plains from Punjab to Bihar with higher intensity between Delhi and Patna.

Explanation:

Characteristics of Monsoonal Rainfall

• Rainfall received from the southwest monsoons is seasonal in character, which occurs between June and September.
• Statement 1 is correct: Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed by relief or topography. For instance the windward side of the Western Ghats registers a rainfall of over 250 cm. Again, the heavy rainfall in the north-eastern states can be attributed to their hill ranges and the Eastern Himalayas.
• Statement 2 is correct: The monsoon rainfall has a declining trend with increasing distance from the sea. Kolkata receives 119 cm during the southwest monsoon period, Patna 105 cm, Allahabad 76 cm and Delhi 56 cm.
• Statement 3 is correct: The monsoon rains occur in wet spells of few days duration at a time. The wet spells are interspersed with rainless interval known as ‘breaks’. These breaks in rainfall are related to the cyclonic depressions mainly formed at the head of the Bay of Bengal, and their crossing into the mainland. Besides the frequency and intensity of these depressions, the passage followed by them determines the spatial distribution of rainfall. The summer rainfall comes in a heavy downpour leading to considerable run off and soil erosion.
• Statement 4 is correct: Its spatial distribution is also uneven which ranges from 12 cm to more than 250 cm. The beginning of the rains sometimes is considerably delayed over the whole or a part of the country. The rains sometimes end considerably earlier than usual, causing great damage to standing crops and making the sowing of winter crops difficult.

Explanation:

• Black soil covers most of the Deccan Plateau which includes parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu.
• In the upper reaches of the Godavari and the Krishna, and the north western part of the Deccan Plateau, the black soil is very deep. These soils are also known as the ‘Regur Soil’ or the ‘Black Cotton Soil’.
• The black soils are generally clayey, deep and impermeable. They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when dried. So, during the dry season, these soil develop wide cracks. Thus, there occurs a kind of ‘self ploughing’
• Because of this character of slow absorption and loss of moisture, the black soil retains the moisture for a very long time, which helps the crops, especially the rain fed ones to sustain even during the dry season.
• Chemically, the black soils are rich in lime, iron, magnesia and alumina. They also contain potash. But they lack in phosphorous, nitrogen and organic matter. The color of the soil ranges from deep black to grey.

Explanation:

• The oilseeds are produced for extracting edible oils. Drylands of Malwa plateau, Marathwada, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana, Rayalseema region of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka plateau are oilseeds growing regions of India
• These crops together occupy about 14 per cent of total cropped area in the country. Groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, soyabean and sunflower are the main oilseed crops grown in India. Rapeseed and mustard
• Rapeseed and mustard comprise several oilseeds as rai, sarson, toria and taramira. These are subtropical crops cultivated during rabi season in north-western and central parts of India.
• These are frost sensitive crops and their yields fluctuate from year to year. But with the expansion of irrigation and improvement in seed technology, their yields have improved and stabilized to some extent.

Explanation:

• On the basis of main source of moisture for crops, the farming can be classified as irrigated and rainfed
• Rainfed farming is further classified on the basis of adequacy of soil moisture during cropping season into dryland and wetland farming
• In India, the dryland farming is largely confined to the regions having annual rainfall less than 75 cm. These regions grow hardy and drought resistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong, gram and guar (fodder crops) and practice various measures of soil moisture conservation and rain water harvesting.
• In wetland farming, the rainfall is in excess of soil moisture requirement of plants during rainy season. Such regions may face flood and soil erosion hazards.
• These areas grow various water intensive crops such as rice, jute and sugarcane and practice aquaculture in the fresh water bodies
• Bajra is sown in hot and dry climatic conditions in northwestern and western parts of the country. It is a hardy crop which resists frequent dry spells and drought in this region. It is cultivated alone as well as part of mixed cropping. This coarse cereal occupies about5.2 per cent of total cropped area in the country
• Guar is a drought-resistant leguminous crop that is generally cultivated in northwest India and for use as a vegetable, green fodder and green manure and for its seeds, as well as for the industrial extraction of guar gum.
• Ragi is a crop which can withstand severe drought conditions. In India, ragi is mostly grown and consumed in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Maharashtra, Kumaonregion of Uttarakhand and Goa.

Explanation:

• There are various factors and conditions responsible for having different types of rural settlements in India. These include: (i) physical features – nature of terrain, altitude, climate and availability of water (ii) cultural and ethnic factors – social structure, caste and religion (iii) security factors – defence against thefts and robberies

Rural settlements in India can broadly be put into four types

• Clustered, agglomerated or nucleated
• Semi-clustered or fragmented
• Hamleted and
• Dispersed or isolated

Clustered Settlements

• Statement 2 is incorrect: The clustered rural settlement is a compact or closely built up area of houses. In this type of village the general living area is distinct and separated from the surrounding farms, barns and pastures
• Statement 1 is correct: The closely built-up area and its intervening streets present some recognizable pattern or geometric shape, such as rectangular, radial, linear, etc
• Statement 3 is correct: Such settlements are generally found in fertile alluvial plains and in the northeastern states
• Sometimes, people live in compact village for security or defence reasons, such as in the Bundelkhand region of central India and in Nagaland. In Rajasthan, scarcity of water has necessitated compact settlement for maximum utilization of available water resources.