Era of Balban (1246–87)

Early Life

• Balban was the greatest of the slave kings. His original name was Baha-ud-Din. He was a Ilbari Turk. Balban belonged to the renowned band of Turkish slaves of Iltutmish known as “The Forty” (Chahelgan). Through his efforts, he rose to the position of Amir-i-Shikar, or Lord of the Hunt, during the reign of Raziya. Bahram Shah granted him the Jagir of Rewari in Punjab and the district of Hansi. In 1246, Balban successfully forced the Mongols to lift the siege of Uch. He played a crucial role in overthrowing Masud Shah and installing Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud as the Sultan of Delhi, resulting in Nasir-ud-Din entrusting him with all powers. Balban’s younger brother, Kishlu Khan, was appointed Amir-i-Hajib or Lord Chamberlain, while his cousin, Sher Khan, became the Governor of Lahore and Bhatinda. In 1249, Balban was appointed Naib-i-Mamlikat. In the same year, he married his daughter to Sultan Nasir-ud-Din. It was in this way that all power came into the hands of Balban.

Destruction of “The Forty”

• Balban was responsible for the destruction of “The Forty”. Balban’s experience as the regent provided him with a deep understanding of the challenges facing the Delhi Sultanate. He recognized that the primary threat to the monarchy came from the powerful group of nobles known as “The Forty.” Balban was convinced that the only way to effectively address these issues was by strengthening the power and authority of the monarchy. He believed that a strong, centralized authority was essential to maintaining stability and control within the Sultanate. According to Balban the Sultan was Zilli Illahi ( God’s shadow on earth )and the recipient of divine grace. Balban implemented strict court discipline during his reign and introduced new customs like prostration and kissing the Sultan’s feet, which symbolized his superiority over the nobles. Additionally, he adopted the Persian festival of Nauroz to showcase his wealth and power to both the nobles and the general populace. Balban positioned himself as the defender of the Turkish nobility, consolidating his support among this influential group.
• At the same time he did not share power with other nobles. Indian Muslims were not given important post in the government. He appointed spies to monitor the activities of the nobles. Balban was determined to break the power of the Forty, the Turkish nobles. Balban spared only the most obedient nobles, resorting to fair or foul means to eliminate all others. An example of his ruthlessness was seen when Malik Baqbaq, the governor of Badaun, was publicly flogged as punishment for his cruelty towards his servants. Haybat Khan, the governor of Oudh, was also punished for killing a man who was drunk. Sher Khan, the governor of Bhatinda was poisoned.

Army

• Instead of focusing on territorial expansion, Balban prioritized the restoration of law and order within his kingdom. He established a separate military department known as the diwan-i-arz and reorganized the army to better address security concerns. One major issue was the frequent plundering of the outskirts of Delhi by groups like the Mewatis. Balban took severe action against these raiders, implementing measures to prevent such robberies. Robbers were relentlessly pursued and punished with death as a deterrent. As a result, the roads became safe for travel.
• Pensions for Unfit Soldiers: Balban reorganized the military department and pensioned off soldiers and troopers who were no longer fit for service. This ensured that the army remained strong and efficient.

Policy of ‘Blood and Iron’:

• Targets:
• Mewatis: Aimed at controlling the rebellious Mewatis.
• Rajput Zamindars: Ensured the suppression of Rajput landowners.
• Dacoits of Ganga-Jamuna Doab and Awadh: Addressed the issue of banditry in these regions.

Measures Taken:

• Clearing Forests: In the Doab and Katihar (modern Rohilkhand), Balban ordered the clearing of forests to eliminate hiding places for rebels.
• Destruction of Rebellious Villages: Villages that were rebellious were destroyed.
• Enslavement: Men, women, and children from rebellious areas were enslaved as a harsh method to control the populace.
• Outcome: These strict measures allowed Balban to control the situation effectively, ensuring stability and order in his territories.

Maintenance of a Magnificent Court:

• Purpose: Balban maintained a magnificent court to impress and awe the people, demonstrating the strength and grandeur of his government.
• Effect: This helped reinforce his authority and control over the nobles and the general populace, ensuring loyalty and reducing the likelihood of rebellion.

Balban’s last years

• In 1279, Tughril Khan, who served as the governor of Bengal, revolted against Balban’s rule. The rebellion was swiftly suppressed, and Tughril Khan met his end through execution. Meanwhile, in the northwest, the Mongols resurfaced, prompting Balban to dispatch his son, Prince Mahmud, to confront them. Tragically, Mahmud lost his life in the ensuing battle, dealing a significant blow to the morale of the Sultan and his administration.
• In his private life, Balban was affectionate and tender-hearted. The shock of the death of his eldest son, Prince Muhammad, practically killed him. He gave shelter to thousands of refugees from Central Asia.
• Balban was a great patron of learning. A large number of learned men from Central Asia were welcomed. They were given liberal maintenance allowances and also separate quarters. Amir Khusru, one of the greatest Persian poets, flourished in his time and lived in the court of his son Prince Muhammad. Likewise, Amir Hassan was patronized by Prince Muhammad.

Kaiqubad (1287-1290)

• Before his death, Balban had nominated his grandson, Kaikhusrau, son of Prince Muhammad, as his successor. However, Fakhr-ud-Din, the Kotwal of Delhi, set aside the nomination of his master and put Kaiqubad, son of Bhugra Khan, on the throne. The new king took up the title of Muiz-ud-Din Kaiqubad.Under him administration was completely neglected. Nizam-ud-Din, who was the son-in-law of Fakhr-ud-Din, the Kotwal of Delhi, consolidated power in his own hands, effectively reducing the Sultan to a mere figurehead. Under his influence, the Sultan became little more than a puppet ruler, with Nizam-ud-Din wielding significant control over the affairs of the state.

Important Buildings Created by the Rulers of the Slave Dynasty:

Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque:

• Construction Period: Erected between 1192 and 1198 by Qutubuddin Aibak.
• Significance: One of the earliest mosques in India, its name means ‘Might of Islam’.
• Location: Built northeast of the Qutub Minar.
• Notable Features: The Iron Pillar in the courtyard, with a Sanskrit inscription in Brahmi script from the fourth century AD, states the pillar was set up as a Vishnudhvaja (standard of god Vishnu) on the hill known as Vishnupada in memory of a king named Chandra.

Qutub Minar:

• Materials: Constructed with red and buff sandstone.
• Construction Details:
  • Foundation: Laid by Qutubuddin Aibak in AD 1199, completing the first storey.
  • Additional Storeys: Three more storeys were added by his successor and son-in-law, Shamsuddin Iltutmish (AD 1211-36).
• Inscriptions: Numerous inscriptions in Arabic and Nagari characters detailing the history of Qutb.
• Iron Pillar: Also present in the courtyard, bearing a Sanskrit inscription from the fourth century AD.

Qutub Minar:

• Location: Ajmer, Rajasthan, India.
• Construction: Built in AD 1199 by Qutubuddin Aibak.
• Significance: Known as the “Two-and-a-half-day Mosque,” it represents an important historical structure.

Tomb of Nasir-ud-Din Mohammed (Sultan Ghari):

• Location: Approximately 6 km west of the Qutub Minar.
• Builder: Constructed in 1231 by Iltutmish.
• Significance: Built over the remains of his eldest son, Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud.

Tomb of Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish:

• Location: Close to the northwest of Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque.
• Construction: Built by Iltutmish himself in AD 1235.
• Significance: Serves as the final resting place of the ruler.

Balban’s Tomb:

• Location: Mehrauli, New Delhi, India.
• Construction: Built in AD 1287.
• Significance: Tomb of Ghiyas-ud-Din Balban, an important figure in the Slave Dynasty.

Attack by the Mongols

• The Mongols attacked in the time of Kaiqubad. Their leader was Tamar Khan of Ghazni. They carried rapine and plunder as far as Samana. However, the well-organised defence measures set up by Balban were still strong and no wonder the Mongols were defeated and they had to go back after terrible losses. Maiik Baqbaq played an important part in the defeat of the Mongols.

End of Slave Dynasty

• Kaiqubad’s reign came to an end in 1290 when he passed away unexpectedly from a stroke. Following his death, his three-year-old son, Shamsuddin Kayumars, ascended the throne. However, Kayumars’ rule was short-lived as he was tragically murdered by Jalal ud-Din Firuz Khalji. This event marked the end of the Mamluk Dynasty and paved the way for the Khalji Dynasty to assume power.

UPSC PYQS

Ques:1. Which of the following Muslim rulers enforced price control system?

(a) Alauddin Khilji (b) Mohd Tughlaq

(c) Iltumish (d) Balban

Ques:2. Why did Md-Bin-Tughluq change his capital from Delhi to Hyderabad/Deogiri?

(a) Because he wanted to improve trade in Deccan

(b) Because he wanted to spread Islam in the Deccan

(c) Because he wanted to punish the people of Delhi

(d) Because he wanted to escape from Mongolian invasion

Ques:3. The following are the rulers of the slave dynasty

1. Ghiyas-ud-din Balban

2. Iltumish

3. Qutb-ud-din Aibak

4. Nasir-ud-din Mahmud

The correct order in which these sultans ruled over India is

(a) 2 3 1 4 (b) 1 4 2 3

(c) 4 1 2 3 (d) 3 2 4 1

Ques:4. Write the correct chronological order of the following events:

A. Shifting of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad

B. First Battle of Panipat

C. Second Battle of Tarain

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) A, B, C (b) C, A, B

(c) C, B, A (d) A, C, B

Ques:5. With reference to Indian history, consider the following statements:

1. The first Mongol invasion of India happened during the reign of Jalal-ud-din Khalji.
2. During the reign of Ala-ud-din Khalji, one Mongol assault marched up to Delhi and besieged the city.
3. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq temporarily lost portions of north-west of his kingdom to Mongols.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only

(c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only

Previous Year Questions -5

Ques.1: Why did Md-Bin-Tughluq change his capital from Delhi to Hyderabad/Deogiri?

(a) Because he wanted to improve trade in Deccan

(b) Because he wanted to spread Islam in the Deccan

(c) Because he wanted to punish the people of Delhi

(d) Because he wanted to escape from Mongolian invasion

Ques.2: The succession of Delhi Sultans to the throne was generally

(a) Heriditary (b) After fight between brothers

(c) By killing the father (d) Invasion

Ques.3: The following are the rulers of the slave dynasty

1. Ghiyas-ud-din Balban 2. Iltumish

3. Qutb-ud-din Aibak 4. Nasir-ud-din Mahmud

The correct order in which these sultans ruled over India is

(a) 2 3 1 4 (b) 1 4 2 3

(c) 4 1 2 3 (d) 3 2 4 1

Ques.4: Which of the following statements about Mohammad-bin Tughlaq is correct?

(a) He introduced paper currency

(b) He introduced the postal system

(c) He was the ablest man among the crowned heads of the medieval age

(d) None of the above

Ques.5: Who inscribed the name of Khalifa of Baghdad on his coins?

(a) AlauddinKhilji (b) Iltumish

(c) Qutub-ud-din (d) Balban

Ques.6: After consolidating his power, Balban assumed the grand title of

(a) Tute-i-Hind (b) Kaisr-i-Hind

(c) Zil-i-Ilahi (d) Din-i-Ilahi

Ques.7: Fawazil in the Sultanate period meant

(a) Extra payment made to the nobles

(b) Revenue assigned in lieu of salary

(c) Excess amount paid to the exchequer by the iqtadars

(d) Illegal exactions extracted from the peasants

Ques.8: “The king was freed from his people and they from their king.” On whose death did Badauni comment thus?

(a) Balban (b) Ala-ud-din Khalji

(c) Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (d) Feroze Shah Tughlaq

Ques.9: How did Sultan Qutb-ud-din Aibak die?

(a) He was treacherously stabbed to death by one of his ambitious nobles

(b) He was killed in a battle with Taj-u0din Yildiz, the ruler of Ghazni who entered into a context with him over the capture of Punjab

(c) He sustained injuries while besieging the fortress of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand and succumbed to them later

(d) He died after a fall from his horse while playing Chaugan

Ques.10: The Mongols under Gengis Khan invaded India during the reign of

(a) Balban (b) FerozTughlaw

(c) Iltumish (d) Muhammad bin Tughlaq

Ques.11: Consider the following statements:

1. It was during the reign of Iltumish that Chengiz Khan reached the Indus in pursuit of the fugitive Khwarezm prince.

2. It was during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq that Taimur occupied Multan and crossed the Indus

3. It was during the reign of Deva Raya 2 of Vijayanagara Empire that Vasco da Gama reached the coast of Kerala

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only

(c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3

Ques.12: Consider the following passage: In the course of a career on the road spanning almost thirty years, he crossed the breadth of the Eastern hemisphere, visited territories equivalent to about 44 modern countries, and put behind him a total distance of approximately 73,000 miles.

The world greatest traveller of pre modern times to whom the above passage refers is

(a) Megasthenes (b) Fa Hein

(c) Marco Polo (d) Ibn Battuta

Hint & Solution

UPSC

Ans: (a)

Ans: (d)

Ans: (d)

Ans: (b)

Ans: (b)

Previous Year

1. (d)

Muhammad bin Tughluq was the Sultan of Delhi from 1325to1351

• The Tughluq dynasty was the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty. Muhammad bin Tughluq was the eldest son of Ghiyas -ud -Din -Tughlaq. In 1327, He decided to move his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad. There were two reasons behind the transfer. Delhi was insecure on account of Mongol invasion. He cannot maintain a large army. Devagiri was more centrally located so he can control both North and South. Daulatabad was also situated at a central place so the administration of both the north and the south could be possible. A broad road was constructed with shady trees alongside for convenience. Several halt stations were installed and food and continuous drinking water was provided. All facilities were provided for the migrant peoples but they never desired for migration. The new capital was divided into wards called mohalla as a separate quarter for different officers. The coins obtained from ,1333 it as a second capital

2. (b)

• The rulers of Delhi Sultanate came in power with the help of sword and army, so there was no definite law of succession. Military strength between brothers was the main factor in succession to the throne, which later gave birth to political instability.

3. (d)

• Qutubuddin Aibak brought into the world in 1150 was a general of the Ghurid lord Mu’izz promotion Din Muhammad Ghori. He was accountable for the Ghurid domains in northern India, and after Mu’izz advertisement Din’s demise, he turned into the leader of an autonomous realm that developed into the Delhi Sultanate controlled by the Mamluk/Slave tradition. He reigned the Delhi Sultanate from 25 June 1206 till 1210.
• Ghiyas ud-din Balban was the ninth ruler of the Mamluk tradition of Delhi. He ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1266 till 1287. He decreased the intensity of the honorability and elevated the height of the king.
• Iltutmish was the third of the Mamluk masters who administered the past Ghurid locales in northern India. He was the main Muslim sovereign to run from Delhi and is in this way thought about the viable originator of the Delhi Sultanate. He Reigned the Sultanate from June 1211 – till 28 April 1236.
• Nasiruddin Mahmud was the most seasoned offspring of Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish and his principal accomplice Turkan Khatun, the young lady of Qutb al-Din Aibak. He was the legislative head of Oudh and later filled in as the legislative leader of Bengal until his passing. He ruled the Delhi Sultanate from the year 1227 till the year 1229.
• Therefore, the chronological order based on their Reign is Qutubuddin Aibak, Shamsuddin Iltutmish, Nasiruddin Mahmud, and Ghiyas ud-din Balban.

4. (c)

Muhammadn Bin Tughlaq was a ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty who ruled over the Delhi Sultanate in the 14th century. His reign was marked by several significant events and policies, some of which are mentioned below:

• Transfer of capital to Daulatabad – Muhammad Bin Tughlaq is known for his decision to transfer the capital of the Delhi Sultanate from Delhi to Daulatabad, a city near Pune in present-day Maharashtra. – The reason behind this move was to ensure better governance and defense against Mongol invasions. However, it proved to be a costly and difficult undertaking, as the people of Delhi were unwilling to move and the logistics of transporting the entire administration were complicated.
• Diwan-i-Kohi and Famine code – Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was also known for his efforts to tackle the problem of famine in his kingdom. – He created the Diwan-i-Kohi, which was a department dedicated to agriculture and the welfare of farmers. – He also introduced a Famine code, which laid down guidelines for the provision of relief and assistance to the affected population during times of scarcity.
• Introduction of token currency – Another notable policy of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was the introduction of token currency in the form of copper and brass coins. – These coins were meant to be used as a substitute for silver coins, which were in short supply at the time. However, they were not widely accepted by the people and caused confusion and economic instability. In conclusion, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s reign was marked by several significant policies and events, some of which were successful and others were not.
• His decision to transfer the capital to Daulatabad and his efforts to address the problem of famine are examples of his attempts to improve governance and welfare. However, his introduction of token currency was a controversial and ultimately unsuccessful policy.

5. (c)

• The inscribing of the name of the Khalifa of Baghdad on coins was a practice known as the “Sikkah-i-Khalifat.” This practice was followed by several rulers in the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire as a symbol of their authority and legitimacy.

among the listed rulers:

(b) Iltutmish, the third ruler of the Delhi Sultanate from the Slave Dynasty, is known to have inscribed the name of the Khalifa of Baghdad on his coins during his reign.

Certainly, here’s more information about the rulers mentioned in the options:

(a) Alauddin Khilji:

• Alauddin Khilji was the second ruler of the Khilji dynasty in the Delhi Sultanate. He ruled from 1296 to 1316.
• Alauddin Khilji is known for his extensive military campaigns and efforts to strengthen the empire’s administration and military.
• While he was a powerful and influential ruler, the inscribing of the Khalifa’s name on coins was more commonly associated with earlier rulers in the Delhi Sultanate.

(b) Iltutmish:

• Iltutmish was the third ruler of the Delhi Sultanate from the Slave Dynasty. He ruled from 1211 to 1236.
• Iltutmish is credited with stabilizing and consolidating the Delhi Sultanate after a period of unrest. He introduced important administrative reforms and expanded the empire’s territory.
• He is known for introducing the practice of inscribing the name of the Khalifa of Baghdad on his coins, which was a symbol of his authority and recognition of the Khalifa as the religious leader.

(c) Qutub-ud-din Aibak:

• Qutub-ud-din Aibak was the founder of the Delhi Sultanate and the first ruler of the Ghulam Dynasty. He ruled from 1206 to 1210.
• He is known for his military campaigns and for beginning the construction of the Qutub Minar in Delhi.
• Like Iltutmish, he also followed the practice of inscribing the name of the Khalifa on his coins.

(d) Balban:

• Ghiyas ud din Balban was a powerful ruler of the Delhi Sultanate and a member of the Slave Dynasty. He ruled from 1266 to 1287.
• Balban is known for his strong and authoritarian rule. He implemented strict measures to maintain law and order in the empire.
• Similar to his predecessors, Balban continued the practice of inscribing the Khalifa’s name on coins during his reign.
• The practice of inscribing the name of the Khalifa of Baghdad on coins was a common feature during the early Delhi Sultanate period and symbolized the rulers’ acknowledgment of the Khalifa’s religious authority.

6. (c)

• After consolidating his power, Balban assumed the grand title of Zil-i-Ilahi. Ghiyas ud din Balban was the ninth sultan of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi. Ghiyas ud Din was the wazir of the last Shamsi sultan, Nasir ud-Din. He reduced the power of the treacherous nobility and heightened the stature of the sultan.
• Amir Khusrau is recognised as ‘Tuti-e-hind’ in the music industry. Khusrau is regarded as one of the four great pillars of Persian literature from the fourteenth century. He was given the title of Tuti-e-Hind, Indian Nightingale. He composed music in Farsi (Persian) and Hindavi, two dialects spoken in Delhi. He is still the favourite of India’s and Pakistan’s qawwals. Amir Khusrau (1253-1325) had to be a gregarious person. He was the court poet of a succession of Delhi Sultans, and Nizammuddin Auliya adored him.He was a legendary figure in the Indian subcontinent’s cultural history. Khusrau has been dubbed the “father of Urdu literature” and has been dubbed the “voice of India” or “Parrot of India” (Tuti-e-Hind).
• Amir Khusro, a poet-politician, was Nizamuddin’s closest companion, following him around like a shadow. Khusro delighted in comparing the sight before him to the solar system, where a retinue of orbiting planets are gravitationally bound to the sun and without their magnificence and magnanimity everything withers away into waste, as he watched Nizamuddin shimmer in the centre of the courtyard, surrounded by trees, plants, and flowers and surrounded by admirers. Khusro, a mere stardust in contrast to Nizamuddin, the solar system’s parental star, found his passion for the light of his life inspiring enough to write countless poems.
• The Kaiser-i-Hind title was a medal awarded by the British monarch to recognize the service of Indian civilians towards the British Raj. Mahatma Gandhi and the Kaiser-i-Hind title are: 1. Gandhi was awarded the Kaiser-i-Hind for his contribution to the recruitment of Indian soldiers during World War I, Gandhi returned the medal in 1920 in protest of the Jallianwala Bagh where British troops had opened fire on unarmed protesters in Amritsar, killing hundreds.

The quest of Akbar culminated in the Tauhid-i-ialhi (the divine monotheism) or Din-i-Illahi, the word Din was applied decades later.

• In 1582, this religious doctrine which combined mysticism, philosophy and nature worship was propounded by Akbar which recognized no prophets.
• Akbar declared himself the spiritual guide of his subjects. His religion Tauhid-i-illahi favored peace and tolerance.
• Tauhid-i-illahi prohibits lust, sensuality, slander and pride, considering them sins. Piety, prudence, abstinence and kindness are the core virtues of this religion. The soul is encouraged to purify itself through yearning of God. It respects celibacy and forbade slaughter of animals.

Elements of Din-i-Illahi

• Din-i-Illahi was an eclectic doctrine that contained elements from very diverse fields. It overthrew almost every ceremonial rule whether Islam or Muslim, but took the good ideas from the Brahmins as well as from the missionaries and adopted “Sun” as a symbol of the worship of the creator. He started a new Illahi era. The new religion proposed:

1. Forbade cow eating
2. Indifference among all Indians
3. Instituted worship of Sun as creator
4. Incorporated the sacred fire adored by the Parsis
5. Encouraged the Havana (homam sacrifice) of the Hindus.

• The new cult was immediately professed by a small band of the courtiers of Akbar including Faizi, Abul Fazal, Birbal and a few others. But the rest remained indifferent if not hostile.
• This hotchpotch of philosophy, mysticism and nature worship of Akbar’s divine faith practically died with him, but left footprints which partially contributed in creation of a nation, that was never a united nation before.

7. (c)

• Fawazil in the Sultanate period means In the Sultanate period of India, the term “fawazil” referred to an excess amount paid to the exchequer by the Iqtadars. The Iqtadars were the local administrators or governors who were appointed by the Sultan to collect revenue from a specific region or territory.

1. Iqtadars and their role – The Sultanate period in India spanned from the 13th to the 16th century when various dynasties ruled over different parts of the subcontinent. – The Sultan appointed Iqtadars to govern and administer specific regions or territories. – The primary responsibility of the Iqtadars was to collect revenue from the assigned area and maintain law and order.

2. Revenue collection and fawazil – The Iqtadars collected revenue from the peasants and other sources in their assigned region. – They were required to meet a certain revenue target set by the Sultan or the central authorities. – If the Iqtadars managed to collect more revenue than the assigned target, the excess amount was considered as fawazil.

3. Excess payment to the exchequer – The fawazil, or the excess amount collected by the Iqtadars, was paid to the exchequer or the treasury of the Sultanate. – This additional revenue was considered a bonus or a surplus amount beyond the required target. – It was an important Sourceof income for the Sultanate, as it added to the overall revenue of the state.

4. Importance and implications – The payment of fawazil to the exchequer was a way to ensure accountability and control over the revenue collected by the Iqtadars. – It prevented the Iqtadars from pocketing the entire revenue or misusing it for personal gains. – The fawazil also played a role in boosting the treasury of the Sultanate, providing additional resources for various administrative functions and military campaigns. In summary, during the Sultanate period in India, fawazil referred to the excess amount of revenue collected by the Iqtadars, which was paid to the exchequer or treasury of the Sultanate. It served as a bonus or surplus amount beyond the assigned revenue target and played an important role in ensuring accountability and boosting the financial resources of the state.

8. (c)

The statement “The king was freed from his people and they from their king” was made by Badauni, a 16th-century historian and chronicler, on the death of Muhammad-bin-Tughlak, also known as Sultan Muhammad Tughluq.

• Sultan Muhammad Tughluq ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1325 to 1351. He was known for his ambitious and controversial policies, which often led to disastrous consequences for his kingdom and the people. He was known for his centralized control and attempts at administrative reforms.

1. Sultan Muhammad Tughluq’s reign: During Sultan Muhammad Tughluq’s reign, he introduced several radical administrative reforms, including the shifting of the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (present-day Maharashtra) and the introduction of a token currency called ‘Tanka’. These policies were aimed at consolidating his control and centralizing the administration, but they had severe repercussions.

2. Shifting of the capital: The shifting of the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad was a disastrous decision. It resulted in the displacement of thousands of people, causing immense suffering and loss. The logistics of moving the entire capital proved to be a logistical nightmare, leading to the death of many people due to hunger, disease, and exhaustion.

3. Introduction of token currency: Sultan Muhammad Tughluq’s introduction of the token currency ‘Tanka’ was also a disastrous move. The new currency was not widely accepted, leading to economic chaos and loss of confidence in the monetary system. Merchants and traders suffered significant losses, and the common people faced economic hardships.

4. Rebellion and unrest: The disastrous policies of Sultan Muhammad Tughluq led to widespread rebellion and unrest throughout his kingdom. The people were burdened with heavy taxes and oppressive policies, leading to a breakdown of law and order. The Sultan’s attempts to control and micromanage every aspect of the administration further alienated him from his people.

5. Death of Sultan Muhammad Tughluq: When Sultan Muhammad Tughluq died, Badauni made the comment, “The king was freed from his people and they from their king.” This statement reflects the general sentiment of relief and liberation felt by the people upon the death of a ruler whose policies had caused immense suffering and chaos.

Conclusion: Badauni’s comment highlights the disastrous reign of Sultan Muhammad Tughluq and the relief felt by the people upon his death. The shifting of the capital and the introduction of a token currency brought immense suffering to the people, leading to rebellion and unrest. Badauni’s comment captures the sentiment of freedom and liberation from a ruler who had failed to govern effectively.

9. (d)

• Qutbud-din Aibak died after a fall from his horse while playing chaugan (polo) in 1210. He was succeeded by Aram Shah. Qutbud-din Aibak was the founder of first independent Turkish kingdom in Northern India in 1206.

10. (c)

• There was no overall king of India at the time, but the main power in the region of northern India was the Mamluk Sultanate of Delhi. The Sultan at the time was Shams-ud-din Iltutmish.Mongols under Genghis Khan invaded India in 1221 but conquering India was not their aim: instead they were attempting to defeat Jalal ad-Din, who later moved to Persia. Iltutmish refused to assist Jalal ad-Din, thereby avoiding having to take sides against the Mongols.Six years later, Genghis Khan was dead. Subsequent Mongol invasions largely failed to make much inroads into India.

11. (a)

• Statement 1: It was during the reign of Iltutmish that Chengiz Khan reached the Indus in pursuit of the fugitive Khwarezm prince. – This statement is correct.
• Statement 2: It was during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq that Taimur occupied Multan and crossed the Indus. – This statement is incorrect. Taimur invaded India during the reign of Sultan Mahmud Tughlaq, Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s predecessor.
• Statement 3: It was during the reign of Deva Raya II of Vijayanagara Empire that Vasco da Gama reached the coast of Kerala. – This statement is incorrect. Vasco da Gama reached the coast of Kerala during the reign of Krishnadevaraya. Therefore, the correct answer is option A, which means statement 1 only is correct.

12. (c)

• Marco Polo was one of the first and most famous Europeans to travel to Asia during the Middle Ages. He traveled farther than any of his predecessors during his 24-year journey along the Silk Road, reaching China and Mongolia, where he became a confidant of Kublai Khan.Marco Polo was a Venetian merchant, explorer, and writer who is best known for his travels and adventures in Asia during the 13th century. Here are some key points about Marco Polo:

1. Early Life: Marco Polo was born in Venice, Italy, in 1254, into a wealthy merchant family. His father, Niccolò, and his uncle, Maffeo, were experienced traders.

2. Journey to Asia: In 1271, at the age of 17, Marco Polo, along with his father and uncle, embarked on a journey to Asia. They traveled along the Silk Road and eventually reached the court of Kublai Khan, the Mongol ruler of the Yuan Dynasty in China.

3. Service to KublaiKhan:Marco Polo spent several years in the service of Kublai Khan, serving as an emissary, administrator, and diplomat. He traveled extensively within the Mongol Empire, visiting regions that are now part of China, Mongolia, India, and other Asian countries.

4. Return to Europe: After about 17 years in Asia, Marco Polo and his family decided to return to Venice. They left China in 1292, accompanied by a princess who was to be married to a Persian prince. Their journey took them across the Indian Ocean and the Middle East.

5. Writing: “The Travels of Marco Polo”:** While in a Genoese prison during a war between Venice and Genoa, Marco Polo dictated his travel experiences to a fellow prisoner named Rustichello of Pisa. The resulting work, known as “Il Milione” or “The Travels of Marco Polo,” became one of the most famous travelogues of the Middle Ages.

6. Impact:Marco Polo’s book had a significant impact on European exploration and knowledge of Asia. His descriptions of the exotic lands, cultures, and riches of the East inspired other European explorers, including Christopher Columbus.

7. Legacy:Marco Polo’s travels continue to be celebrated for their historical and cultural significance. However, some aspects of his accounts have been debated and questioned by historians. Nevertheless, his adventures and writings remain an important part of the history of exploration and trade between Europe and Asia.

Marco Polo died in Venice in 1324, but his legacy lives on through his writings and the enduring fascination with his travels and adventures in the East.

Certainly, here’s more information about each of the options:

(a) Megasthenes:

• Megasthenes was an ancient Greek historian and diplomat who lived during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE.
• He served as an ambassador from the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire to the court of Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan Empire in ancient India.
• Megasthenes’ accounts of his travels and observations in India, recorded in his work “Indika,” provide valuable insights into Mauryan India’s political and cultural life.

(b) Fa Hein (Faxian):

• Fa Hein was a Chinese Buddhist monk and traveler who lived during the 4th and 5th centuries CE.
• He embarked on a pilgrimage to India to visit Buddhist holy sites and collect Buddhist scriptures. His journey took him through various regions of Asia, including India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Central Asia.
• Fa Hein’s travelogue, “Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms,” provides valuable information about the geography, culture, and religious practices of the regions he visited.

(d) Ibn Battuta:

• Ibn Battuta was a Moroccan scholar and explorer who lived during the 14th century.
• He embarked on an extensive journey across the Islamic world, visiting regions in North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, India, and parts of Southeast Asia.
• His travelogue, “The Rihla,” provides detailed accounts of his travels, including descriptions of cultures, societies, and historical events in the places he visited.

These travelers and explorers made remarkable journeys in different time periods and regions, contributing to our understanding of the world’s history, cultures, and societies. Each of them left behind valuable accounts of their adventures and observations.