Human Genetics

9.1 Human Genetics – Methods and Application

(Methods for study of genetic principles in man-family study (pedigree analysis, twin study, foster child, co-twin method, cytogenetic method, chromosomal and karyo-type analysis), biochemical methods, immunological methods, D.N.A technology and recombinant technologies)

Pedigree & Family Studies

1. Differentiate between pedigree and genealogical analyses. Discuss their history and application in anthropological studies( 2025)

1. Pedigree analysis in genetic counselling. (2022)
2. Genetic imprinting in human diseases. (2022)
3. Briefly describe the various methods used in the genetic study of man. (2017)
4. Write a note on Pedigree Analysis. (2007)

Twin Studies

1. Write a note in 150 words on Twin method in human genetics. (2013)
2. Discuss the role of twins in nature–nurture problems with examples. (1999)
3. Define twins. Describe diagnosis of twins. Explain how twins are useful in human genetics. (1998)

DNA & Recombinant Technology

1. What do you understand by recombinant DNA technology? Discuss its application and limitations in improving human health. (2000)
2. Write a note on Recombinant DNA technology. (2001)
3. Discuss the recent developments in genetic techniques and comment upon their potential social significance. (1997)

Chromosomes & Cytogenetic Studies

1. Discuss the genetical and clinical aspects of the anomalies of sex chromosomes in man with special reference to mosaic constitutions. (1995)

Genetics, Race & Environment

1. Write a note on Heredity and Environment. (1988)
2. “Genetic similarities far outweigh the racial differences among men.” Discuss. (1981)

Applied Dimensions: Gender Studies

1. Why are gender studies gaining importance these days? Assess the contribution of anthropology to gender studies. (1996)

9.2 Mendelian Genetics in Man

(Mendelian genetics in man-family study, single factor, multifactor, lethal, sub-lethal and polygenic inheritance in man.)

Mendelian Principles & Applications

1. Mendelian and non-Mendelian traits. (2025)
2. Critically discuss the Mendelian principles and their application to human populations. (2016)
3. What are the contributions of Gregor Mendel to the field of Genetics? Discuss with examples how Mendel’s laws apply to man. (1993)
4. What are Mendel’s laws of inheritance? Describe the recent advances in human genetics. (1992)
5. Describe Mendel’s laws of inheritance. What are the recent advances in human genetics and human cytogenetics? (1990)
6. Discuss how the laws of heredity propounded by Mendel can be understood in the context of meiotic cell division and their application on man. (1987)
7. Discuss the laws of inheritance propounded by Mendel on the basis of his classic experiments. Explain how these laws are applied in the study of human genetics. (1986)
8. Mendelian principles are equally applicable to animal populations as well as to human populations. Discuss. (1982)
9. Monogenic, Polygenic & Multifactor Inheritance
10. Polygenic inheritance. (2023)

Discuss monogenic and polygenic inheritance in man, citing suitable examples. (2011)

1. Lethal & Sub-lethal Genes

1. Lethal and sub-lethal genes. (2024)   
2. What are lethal and sub-lethal genes? Explain. (2012)

Short Notes / Definitions

1. Write a note on Mendelism. (1991)
2. Write a note on Law of Heredity as propounded by Mendel. (1989)

9.3 Genetic Polymorphism, Population Genetics & Consanguinity

(Concept of genetic polymorphism and selection, Mendelian population, Hardy-Weinberg law; causes and changes which bring down frequency – mutation, isolation, migration, selection, inbreeding and genetic drift. Consanguineous and nonconsanguineous mating, genetic load, genetic effect of consanguineous and cousin marriages.)

Hardy–Weinberg Law & Mendelian Population

1. Write a note in 150 words on Hardy-Weinberg Law. (2017)
2. Write a note in 150 words on Conditions necessary for the operation of Hardy–Weinberg Law. (2011)
3. Define Hardy–Weinberg law and its application in human genetics. (1998)
4. Discuss the concept of ‘Mendelian population’ and its application in anthropo-genetic variations in India. (1997)

Genetic Polymorphism & Selection

1. Balanced and transient genetic polymorphism. (2022)
2. Differentiate between transient and balanced genetic polymorphism. Illustrate with human examples. (2019)
3. Define genetic polymorphism. Give details of its types with examples. (2015)
4. Write a note in 150 words on Genetic polymorphism. (2011)
5. Write a note on Genetic Polymorphism. (2006)
6. Write a note on Genetic Polymorphism and Selection. (2003)
7. Discuss balanced polymorphism & relaxed selection with malaria-dependent polymorphisms. (1996)

Natural Selection & Adaptation

1. Write a note in 150 words on How ‘natural selection’ acts on variation. (2012)
2. Write a note on Natural selection in humans. (2009)
3. Write a note on Genetic Adaptation. (2000)

Genetic Drift, Mutation & Migration

1. Single-gene mutation disorders in man. (2024)

1. Single-gene mutation disorders in man. (2024)
2. Write notes on the Genetic drift in about 150 words. (2020)
3. Discuss the role of genetic drift, mutation and migration as causes of variation. (1985)
4. Write a note on Mutation. (1998)
5. Describe in brief the major causes of change in gene frequency of a population. (2003)

Inbreeding, Consanguinity & Marriage Rules

1. What is meant by karyotype? How does its analysis help in diagnosis of chromosomal aberrations in man? (2024)
2. How do marriage rules impact the gene pool of populations? (2020)
3. What are the genetic effects of consanguinity? Give examples. (2012)
4. Write a note on Inbreeding. (2008)
5. Write a note on Problems of Inbreeding. (2005)
6. Write a note on Inbreeding and crossbreeding. (1993)
7. Write a note on Inbreeding and hybridization. (1988)
8. Is inbreeding different from consanguinity? Account of Indian studies and social relevance. (1987)
9. What are the various forms of preferential mating? Explain with Indian examples. (1986)
10. ‘Inbreeding is not necessarily deleterious in effect.’ Comment. (1981)

Genetic Load

1. What do you understand by ‘Genetic Load’ in a population? How is it measured and what are the important factors that can influence it? (2013)
2. What is ‘genetic load’ & what factors influence it? (2009)

Immunogenetics

1. What do you understand by Immunogenetics? Explain with suitable examples. (2015)

General Population Genetics

1. Discuss the factors affecting gene frequencies among human populations. (2014)
2. Write a note on Anthropological relevance of population genetics. (2009)
3. What is Balanced Genetic Polymorphism? How is it maintained in a population? (2010)

9.4 Chromosomes and Chromosomal Aberrations in Man

1. Numerical and structural aberrations (disorders).
2. Sex chromosomal aberration- Klinefelter (XXY), Turner (XO), Super female (XXX), intersex and other syndromic disorders.
3. Autosomal aberrations- Down syndrome, Patau, Edward and Cri-du-chat syndromes.
4. Genetic imprints in human disease, genetic screening, genetic counselling, human DNA profiling, gene mapping and genome study.
5. What is genetic counselling? Briefly discuss various steps involved in it. (2024)

Chromosomal Aberrations – General

 

1. Describe the causes of structural abnormalities of chromosomes with suitable examples. (2023)
2. “Chromosomal aberrations can play havoc with the human body and mind.” Explain with suitable examples. (2021)
3. Discuss chromosomal aberrations in man illustrating with examples. (2015)
4. Chromosomal deletions and numerical fluctuations may lead to gross abnormalities in man. Discuss with examples. (2010)

Sex Chromosomal Aberrations

1. How may numerical aberrations in sex chromosomes lead to genetic disorders? (2020)
2. Describe Turner and Klinefelter Syndromes in humans. (2014)
3. Discuss the chromosomal aberrations and manifestations of Klinefelter and Turner syndromes. (2012)
4. Write a note on Klinefelter Syndrome. (2003)
5. Discuss different types of sex chromosomal aberrations. (2007)

Autosomal Aberrations

1. Write a note in 150 words on Down’s Syndrome. (2015)

Genetic Screening, Counseling & Therapy

1. Explain the significance of screening and counseling for genetic disorders. (2016)
2. Write a note in 150 words on Genetic Counselling. (2014)
3. Write a note in 150 words on Genetic Counselling. (2012)
4. What is Genetic Counselling? Discuss its relevance in the present-day context. (2006)
5. Write a note on Genetic Counselling. (2002)
6. Write a note on Genetic Counselling. (1998)
7. Write a note on Gene Therapy. (1995)

Genome Study, DNA Profiling & Gene Mapping

1. What are the applications of human genomic research in human welfare? (2020)
2. Write a note in 150 words on Categorise Genes that influence Human Survival. (2018)
3. Describe the mechanisms for structural anomalies of autosomes with diagrams. (2018)
4. Write a note on Genome Study. (2007)
5. Discuss the relevance of human DNA Profiling and Gene Mapping in prevention and cure of diseases. (2001)

Miscellaneous

1. Write a note in 150 words on Oncogenes. (2010)
2. Write a note on Taurodontism. (1987)

9.5 Race and Racism

(Race and racism, biological basis of morphological variation of non-metric and characters. Racial criteria, racial traits in relation to heredity and environment; biological basis of racial classification, racial differentiation and race crossing in man.)

Concept & Validity of Race

1. Write notes on: Is race a valid and biologically meaningful concept? (150 words) (2021)
2. With reference to somatoscopic & morphometric traits, critically assess if ‘Race’ is a valid concept. (2019)
3. Write a note in 150 words on Race is a Myth. Justify its present-day relevance. (2018)
4. Write a note in 150 words on Concept of race. (2017)
5. Is Race a valid concept? Critically assess the relevance of racial classification in the Indian context. (2010)
6. Define race and describe its relevance to modern anthropological studies. (1984)
7. Define race as a biological concept and discuss various criteria of racial classification. (1988)
8. What is race? Describe the criteria employed for classification of human races. (1991)
9. Examine critically the basis of racial classification in light of modern developments in Physical Anthropology. (1989)

Race & Racism

1. Write notes on Racism and Eugenics. (150 words) (2020)
2. Differentiate between Race and Racism. What are three races of the world? Give biological criteria for such classification. (2013)
3. Write a note on Race and Racism. (2004)
4. Write a note on Racism. (1987)
5. Racial superiority is not based on science. Substantiate. (1982)
6. Write a note on Controversies of race. (1996)

Role of Heredity & Environment in Race Formation

1. Explain the role of heredity and environment in the formation of races. (2016)
2. Discuss the role of heredity and environment in formation of race. (1994)
3. Discuss the main processes involved in the formation of races. (1992)
4. How are the races formed? Describe the physical traits & distribution of racial types in India. (1990)
5. Discuss the role of environment and heredity in the formation of race. (1984)
6. Discuss the role of environment and heredity in formation of races. (1982)
7. Write a note on Factors involved in race formation in man. (1985)

Racial Classification & Criteria

1. Write a note on Racial criteria. (2006)
2. Write a note on Racial criteria. (1999)
3. Do you find a serological basis of racial classification? (1983)

Race Crossing & Racial Types in India

1. Discuss race crossing in humans with suitable examples. (2012)
2. Write a note on Racial types in India. (1993)
3. What is ‘race’? Enumerate and discuss the factors responsible for race formation. (1998)

9.6 Age, Sex & Population Variation as Genetic Markers

(ABO, Rh blood groups, HLA Hp, transferring, Gm, blood enzymes. Physiological characteristics- Hb level, body fat, pulse rate, respiratory functions and sensory perceptions in different cultural and socio-economic groups.)

Blood Groups (ABO, Rh, Gm, HLA, etc.)

1. Describe the genetics and inheritance patterns of the ABO and Rh blood groups in man. (2024)

1. Blood group systems and HLA – differences between HLA and red-cell antigen systems. (2022)
2. Write a note in 150 words on Rh-Blood Group. (2016)
3. Discuss the role of ABO blood group system in resolving cases of disputed paternity. (2012)
4. Write a note on Genetics of HLA and organ transplantation. (2009)
5. Write a note on ABO and Rh blood group distribution in human populations. (2008)
6. Evaluate genetic heterogeneity of ABO, Rh and Gm antigens. Discuss how principal human groups can be distinguished on the basis of blood antigen characteristics. (2000)

Physiological Traits (Hb, Respiratory Functions, etc.)

1. Give a comparative account of variations in hemoglobin level and respiratory functions among populations living under different environmental stresses. (2012)
2. Write a note in 150 words on Respiratory functions. (2011)

Concept of Genetic Markers

1. What are genetic markers? Discuss their applications in understanding population variation, disease association and forensics. (2025)

1. What are genetic markers and what is their usefulness? Why are blood groups considered good genetic markers? Illustrate with examples. (2013)

9.7 Ecological Anthropology & Human Adaptation

(Bio-cultural Adaptations—Genetic and Nongenetic factors. Man’s physiological responses to environmental stresses: hot desert, cold, high-altitude climate.)

Concepts of Ecological Anthropology

1. What is acclimatization? Discuss adaptive responses to high altitude and cold climate. (2021)
2. Describe the biocultural responses to extreme climatic events. (2020)
3. “Human adaptations are always biocultural in nature.” Discuss with reference to human adaptation to high altitude climate. (2019)
4. Distinguish between adaptation, adaptability and acclimatization with examples. (2018)
5. Discuss the genetic and non-genetic factors in the biocultural adaptations of human beings to different environments. (2016)
6. Write a note in 150 words on Ecological Anthropology. (2014)
7. Write a note on Ecological Anthropology. (2001)
8. Write a note on Ecological Anthropology. (1997)

High Altitude Adaptation

1. Discuss the responses and acclimatization to high altitude stresses. (2017)
2. What are the stresses at high altitudes? How do better cardio-respiratory functions help the native highlanders in combating low environmental pressure? (2014)
3. Native highlanders are well adapted to the high-altitude environment. Discuss. (2011)
4. Define adaptability. What biocultural adjustments do humans show in coping with stress at high altitude? (2008)
5. Discuss the mechanism by which the human body adapts to altitudinal changes and other geographical stresses. (1999)
6. Define adaptability. Compare the adaptive response in man to stresses at high altitudes and in a hot desert environment. (1995)

Heat & Cold Adaptation

1. Critically examine the physiological responses and acclimatization to cold climate in man. (2015)
2. Elaborate upon major human adaptations to heat and cold. (2013)
3. How does improved aerobic fitness increase exercise tolerance in warm humid climates? Give examples. (2012)
4. Examine adaptive significance of human variations in Tropical and Arctic climatic zones. (2007)

Growth, Stature & Environmental Influence

1. Justify: “Though human growth is under tight genetic control, it is influenced by various environmental factors.” (2013)
2. Stature is susceptible to environmental influences. Substantiate. (1983)

Concepts: Ecosystem & Biocultural Adaptation

1. Define ecosystem. Explain with examples how biocultural adaptive qualities have helped human survival in stressful eco-conditions. (2000)
2. Write a note on Biological adaptation. (2002)
3. What is cultural ecology? Discuss how man adapts to different environments with examples. (1995)
4. How are body size and shape related to climatic adaptation? Discuss ecological rules with human examples. (1997)

9.8 Epidemiological Anthropology

(Health and disease. Infectious and non-infectious diseases, Nutritional deficiency related diseases.)

Concept & Scope of Epidemiological Anthropology

1. ‘Genome-wide Disease Association Studies (GWAS) advanced our understanding of health and disease.’ Discuss(2025)

1. Foetal origin of adult diseases and contribution of David Barker. (2025)
2. Haemoglobin in health and disease. (2024)
3. Critically comment on the lifestyle diseases and their impact on human health. (2024)
4. What is health? Is the burden of lifestyle diseases rising? Justify with examples. (2022)
5. Describe the impact of infectious diseases on indigenous populations. (2020)
6. Critically examine the demographic and epidemiological consequences with rise in food production and sedentism. (2020)
7. Describe the scope of Epidemiological Anthropology in the study of infectious and non-infectious diseases. (2016)
8. Write a note in 150 words on Epidemiological Anthropology. (2014)
9. Write a note in 150 words on Epidemiological anthropology. (2012)

Epidemiological Transition & Disease Evolution

1. Narrate evolution of disease and major causes of ill health in human populations. (2018)
2. What is meant by epidemiological transition? Elaborate upon its causes and consequences highlighting major health problems of our adult population today. (2013)

Anthropology, Health & Disease

1. Discuss the role of anthropology in the understanding of health and disease. What specific understanding is available with respect to infectious and non-infectious diseases? (2014)
2. Briefly discuss the important causes for the variations in occurrence and intensity of parasitic diseases among different populations. (2012)
3. Write a note in 150 words on Social concept of disease. (2010)

Non-communicable & Lifestyle Diseases

1. Write a note on Non-communicable diseases. (2009)
2. Write a note on Drug Abuse. (2005)
3. Write a note on Impact of smoking on Health. (2004)

Nutritional Deficiency & Malnutrition

1. Elucidate the different forms of malnutrition. Describe protein-calorie malnutrition with suitable examples. (2023)
2. Write a note on Malnutrition. (2000)
3. Write a note on Malnutrition. (1994)
4. Write a note on Effects of malnutrition. (1993)
5. “Nutrition affects several physical features.” Exemplify. (1981)