Akbar (1556–1605)

• Jalaluddin, known as Akbar, was crowned at the age of fourteen. Though Sikandar Sur had been defeated by Humayun, his power had not been crushed totally.He was still at large in the Punjab. He retained his pretensions to be the king of Delhi and Punjab.In the Eastern Provinces, the Afghans were strong under their king Mohammad Shah Adali. Adali’s minister, Hemu, possessed a large army and was determined to prevent Akbar from taking possession of the dominion of his father.
• The Rajput princes also possessed considerable stength and sitting in their forts, they were formidable enemies of Akbar. The important Rajput princes were those of Mewar, Jaisalmer, Bundi and Jodhpur. These Rajput princes had increased their strength in the time of Humayun. They had increased their military strength to such an extent that they were thinking in terms of fighting against the Mughal Empire. The States of Gujarat and Malwa had become independent. Their rulers acted in an independent manner and entered into diplomatic relations with other countries. Though he had so many challeneges he overcame efficiently. No doubt Akbar, the Great, was one of the Greatest Rulers of Indian History.

Second Battle of Panipat (1556)

Hemu, the Hindu general of the displaced Afghan king Adil Shah, successor of Sher Shah, induced the king to permit him to lead the Afghan army against the Mughals. Encouraged by the king, Hemu first took Gwalior, expelling the Mughal governor. Then he marched on Agra and captured it without any resistance. Hemu’s generosity helped him to overcome potential enemies when he took Delhi. In November 1556 Akbar marched towards Delhi to meet the forces of Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat. An arrow struck the eye of Hemu when the battle was likely to end in his favour. The leaderless Afghan army became demoralised and the Mughal forces emerged victorious. Hemu was captured and executed. This victory made Akbar the sovereign of Agra and Delhi and re-establish the Mughal Empire.

Akbar and Bairam Khan

• As a conqueror Akbar triumphed all over North India. The first four years of Akbar’s rule saw the expansion of the Mughal empire from Kabul to Jaunpur, including Gwalior and Ajmer, under his regent Bairam Khan. Soon Bairam Khan began to behave haughtily towards his fellow nobles. Akbar, enraged by his behaviour issued a Farman dismissing Bairam Khan. This led to Bairam Khan’s revolt which was ably dealt with by Akbar. Bairam Khan, finally agreeing to submit himself to Akbar, proceeded to Mecca. But on his way he was murdered by an Afghan.

Wars and Conquests of Akbar

Akbar was a great general and conqueror. No wonder, he spent practically the whole of his life in making wars and adding to his territories.

• Malwa was conquered in 1562 from Baz Bahadur who was made a mansabdar in Akbar’s court.
• The Gondwana region of central India was annexed after a fierce battle with Rani Durgavati and her son Vir Narayan in 1564.
• The ruler of Mewar, Rana Udai Singh, put up a great fight before losing Chittor, which was conquered by Akbar after a siege of six months. Rana Udai Singh retreated to the hills. Yet his generals Jaimal and Patta carried on their fight. Finally, the generals, along with 30,000 Rajputs were killed. Out of admiration for the gallant Jaimal and Patta, Akbar honoured them by erecting statues to their memory outside the chief gate of Agra fort.
• The capture of Chittor was followed by the surrender of Rajput states like Ranthambhor, Kalinjar, Bikaner, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer.
• After subordinating the regions of central India, Akbar turned his attention to Gujarat, a wealthy province renowned for its maritime commerce. Akbar conquered Gujarat from Muzaffar Shah in 1573. Gujarat became a launch pad for the annexation of Deccan. After defeating Daud Khan, the Afghan ruler of Bihar and Bengal, both the provinces were annexed to the Mughal empire in 1576.
• Akbar defeated Mirza Hakim of Kabul with the help of Raja Man Singh and Bhagwan Das. His conquest of Kashmir (1586) and Sindh (1591) consolidated the empire in the northwest. After achieving the political integration of North India Akbar turned his attention to the Deccan. Akbar’s forces had occupied Khandesh region in 1591. In 1596 Berar was acquired from Chand Bibi, who, as the regent of her nephew Muzaffar Shah, the Nizam Shahi ruler of Ahmednagar, valiantly defended Ahmednagar against the Mughal forces of Akbar. By 1600 parts of Ahmed Nagar had fallen into the hands of Mughal forces.

The Rajput policy

• Akbar followed a policy of reconciliation with the Rajputs. Some of the Rajput princes entered into matrimonial alliances with him. Akbar married in 1562 the eldest daughter of Raja Bihar Mal of Jaipur. In 1570, he married princesses from Bikaner and Jaisalmer. In 1584, Prince Salim was married to the daughter of Raja Bhawan Das. Rajputs served the Mughals for four generations. Many of them rose to the positions of military generals. Raja Bhagawan Das and Raja Man Singh were given senior positions in the administration by Akbar. One by one, all Rajput states submitted to Akbar. Raja Todar Mal, an expert in revenue affairs, rose to the position of Diwan. Birbal was a favourite companion of Akbar.
• Mewar and Marwar were the two Rajput kingdoms that defied the Mughal Empire. After the death of Rana Udai Singh, his son Rana Pratap Singh refused to acknowledge Akbar’s suzerainty and continued to fight the Mughals till his death in 1597. The Battle of Haldighati in 1576 was the last pitched battle between the Mughal forces and Rana Pratap Singh. In Marwar (Jodhpur), the ruler Chandra Sen, son of Maldeo Rathore, resisted the Mughals till his death in 1581, though his brothers fought on the side of the Mughals. Udai Singh, the brother of Chandra Sen was made the ruler of Jodhpur by Akbar

Religious Policy

• Akbar took earnest efforts to win the goodwill of the Hindus. He abolished the jizya (poll tax) on non-Muslims and the tax on Hindu pilgrims. The practice of sati by Hindu widows was also abolished. The practice of making slaves of war prisoners was also discontinued. A tolerant religious policy ensured the cultural and emotional integration of the people. Even before Akbar, many Muslim kings had married Rajput princesses. But Akbar with his broadminded nature was instrumental in these matrimonial alliances becoming a synthesising force between two different cultures as he maintained close relations with the families.
• Various factors were responsible for his religious ideas. The most important among them were his early contacts with the sufi saints, the teachings of his tutor Abdul Latif, his marriage with Rajput women, his association with intellectual giants like Shaikh Mubarak and his two illustrious sons – Abul Faizi and Abul Fazl – and his ambition to establish an empire in Hindustan.
• In 1575, he ordered for the construction of Ibadat Khana (House of worship) at his new capital Fatepur Sikri. Akbar invited learned scholars from all religions like Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism. He disliked the interference of the Muslim Ulemas in political matters. In 1579, he issued the “Infallibility Decree” by which he asserted his religious powers.
• In 1582, he promulgated a new religion called Din Ilahi or Divine Faith. It believes in one God. It contained good points of all religions. Its basis was rational. It upholds no dogma. It was aimed at bridging the gulf that separated different religions. However, his new faith proved to be a failure. It fizzled out after his death. Even during his life time, it had only fifteen followers including Birbal. Akbar did not compel anyone to his new faith.

Land Revenue System

• It goes without saying that Sher Shah Sur was the forerunner of Akbar in the field of land revenue system. Sher Shah laid down the main principles which were followed later on in the time of Akbar. Sher Shah had fixed the state demand at one-third of the produce and made regulations for the equitable collection of land revenue. Sher Shah’s system was adopted by Akbar with the necessary alterations. Sher Shah’s regime was too short to stabilize the system. Akbar’s long region gave him ample opportunity to plan out, develop and perfect his system.
• Early efforts were made under Khwaja Abdul Majid Khan and Mazaffar Turbati to reform the revenue system.
• In 1582, Raja Todar Mal became the Diwan-i-Ashraf or Diwan-i-Chief. The whole of the Land Revenue system was thoroughly over-hauled. The prevailing system at that time was to fix assessments every year on the basis of the yield and prices. The result was that the demand of the state varied from year to year. The collectors could not proceed with their work of collection of revenue until the officers fixed the rates to be charged. Todar Mal made a change in the existing system. He got an aggregate of the rates of collection for 10 years from 1570 to 1580 and one-third of them was taken as the basis of assessment. It was known as Dahsala System which was completed in 1580. By this system, Todar Mal introduced a uniform system of land measurement.

The land was also divided into four categories –

• Polaj (cultivated every year),
• Parauti (once in two years),
• Chachar (once in three or four years) and
• Banjar (once in five or more years).

Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.

The Mansabdari System

• The Mansabdari System of the Mughals was the basis of civil and military administration of the country. The system was introduced by Akbar who borrowed it from Persia. It differed fundamentally from the feudal system of Europe in the sense that it had nothing to do with land and was also not hereditary. The Mansabdari System provided the Mughals with a civil service. The meaning of the word Mansab or Manseb is office, rank or dignity.
• It provided a systematic and centralised system of administration which contributed to the success of the empire. The nobles, civil and military officials combined into one single service with each officer receiving the title of Mansabdar. Mansabdar rank was divided into Zat and Sawar.
• Zat- determined the number of soldiers each Mansabdar received ranging from 10 to 10,000.
• Sawar- determined the number of horses under a Mansabdar.
• Each officer could rise from the lowest to the highest ranks. Promotions and demotions were made through additions or reductions of Mansabs. The Mansabdari system diversified the ethnic base of his nobility. During Akbar’s early years the nobles were drawn exclusively from Central Asians or Persians. But after the introduction of the Mansabdari system, the nobility encompassed Rajputs and Shaikhzadas (Indian Muslims). The salary of a Mansabdar was fixed in cash but was paid by assigning him a jagir (an estate from which he could collect money in lieu of his salary), which was subjected to regular transfers. The rank of Mansabdar was not hereditary and immediately after the death of a Mansabdar, the jagir was resumed by the state.

Akbar as Founder of Mughal Empire

• It goes without saying that Babur laid the foundations of the Mughal Empire in India by defeating Ibrahim Lodi in 1526 at the first Battle of Panipat. Humayun succeeded to the throne in 1530 but he was defeated in the battle of Kanauj in 1540 by Sher Shah Suri and driven from Agra and Delhi. Thus, the Empire founded by Babur was destroyed. However, Humayun won back Kandhar, Kabul, the Punjab, Delhi and Agra before his death in 1556. In this case also, the sudden death of Humayun left the Mughal position in Indian insecure. No wonder, Akbar succeeded to a shaky throne. Akbar’s position in the Punjab, where he was at the time of his father’s death, was very insecure, Sikandar Sur was still at large in the Punjab. He was a potential foe. Thus it is evident that Akbar inherited nothing of the Mughal Empire founded by Babur,
• Akbar had to begin from a scratch. He won back Delhi and Agra after the second Battle of Panipat. Sikandar Sur was pursued and he ultimately surrendered and Akbar’s control was thereby established in the Punjab. Gwalior and Jaunpur were conquered in 1557. Malwa was conquered in 1560. Gondwana was conquered in 1564. Chittor was captured in 1568. Maharana Pratap was defeated in the Battle of Haldighati in 1576. Gujarat was finally annexed in 1584 Bengal gave trouble for some time but was finally conquered in 1592. Kabul was annexed in 1585. Kashmir was conquered in 1586. Sind was conquered in 1591. Qandhar was annexed in 1595. Ahmednagar was conquered in 1600 and Asirgarh in 1601.
• It was this Empire created by the valour and statesmanship of Akbar that is the envy of the historians. No wonder Akbar is called the real founder of the Mughal Empire in India.

Reforms of Akbar

Some of the reforms of Akbar were as under;

• He abolished the Pilgrim Tax in 1563 with a view to winning over the good-will of the Hindus.
• The next reform was the abolition of Jizya which was a tax on the “conscientious faith of any man.”
• Abolition of Sati from the Hindus in general and the Rajputs in particular. Special inspectors were appointed to keep a watch on the voluntary or forced Sati. No woman was to be burnt against her will.
• Akbar discouraged child-marriages and the system of female infanticide. A law was made that no boy below the age of 16 and no girl below the age of 14 was to be married.
• Akbar abolished the system of the enslavement of the wives and children of the conquered people.
• The Chera and Dagh system of Alaud- Din Khilji was reintroduced.
• The Jagir system was abolished and all Jagirs were converted into Crownlands. The state became the owner of those lands and collected the revenues directly. The officers were to be paid salaries.
• Mir Arz was appointed to receive petition from the public and submit them to the Emperor.
• A record office was set up and the proceedings of the court were to be recorded

Jahangir (1605–1627)

• Akbar was succeeded by his son Salim with the title Nur-ud-din Jahangir. He was Akbar’s son by a Rajput wife. His ascension was challenged by his eldest son Prince Khusrau who staged a revolt with the blessings of Sikh Guru Arjun Dev. Prince Khusrau was defeated, captured and blinded, while Guru Arjun Dev was executed. Jahangir also tamed the rebel Afghan Usman Khan in Bengal.
• Mewar, which had defied Akbar under Rana Udai Singh and his son Rana Pratap Singh, was brought to terms by Jahangir after a military campaign led by his son Prince Khurram (later to become Emperor Shah Jahan) against Rana Amar Singh, the grandson of Rana Udai Singh. They concluded a treaty whereby Rana Amar Singh could rule his kingdom after accepting the suzerainty of Jahangir. In 1608 Ahmad Nagar in the Deccan had declared independence under Malik Ambar.
• Several attempts by prince Khurram to conquer Ahmad Nagar ended in failure. Prince Khurram had conquered the fort of Kangra after a siege of 14 months. Kandahar, conquered by Akbar from the Persians in 1595, was retaken by the Persian King Shah Abbas in 1622. Jahangir wanted to recapture it. But he could not achieve it due to the rebellion of Prince Khurram.

Jahangir’s reign witnessed the visit of two Englishmen – William Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe. While the former could not get the consent of the Emperor for establishing an English factory in India, the latter, sent as ambassador by King James I, succeeded in securing permission to establish a British factory at Surat.

Nur Jahan

• In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was known as Nur Jahan (Light of World). Her father Itimaduddauala was a respectable person. He was given the post of chief diwan. Other members of her family also benefited from this alliance. Nur Jahan’s elder brother Asaf Khan was appointed as Khan-i-Saman, a post reserved for the nobles. In 1612, Asaf Khan’s daughter,
• Arjumand Banu Begum (later known as Mumtaj), married Jahangir’s third son, prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan). Nur Jahan dominated the royal household and set new fashions based on Persian traditions. She encouraged Persian art and culture in the court. She was a constant companion of Jahangir and even joined him in his hunting.
• The rise of Shah Jahan was due to his personal ambitions. He rose in revolt against his father who ordered him to go to Kandahar. This rebellion distracted the activities of the empire for four years.

After Jahangir’s death in 1627, Shah Jahan reached Agra with the support of the nobles and the army. Nur Jahan was given a pension and lived a retired life till her death eighteen years later.