United Nations Organisation

Foundation of the UNO

• The Second World War proved to be more destructive than the First World War. For the first time atomic weapon was used. The people of the whole world were afraid of the consequences of such wars in future. In order to bring the quarreling countries to talks and negotiate for peace countries like the USA, the USSR and the UK wanted a world forum. Although they had failed in their first experiment during the First World War yet they were firmly committed to peace. The result of their tireless effort was the birth of the United Nations Organization.
• After a series of pivotal conferences, including the Atlantic Charter, the Yalta Conference, and the Potsdam Conference, the creation of the United Nations Organization was ultimately finalized in 1944 at Dumbarton Oaks in the USA. The Charter of the United Nations (U.N.) was signed by the representatives of fifty-one nations at San Francisco on 26th June 1945.
• Delegates of fifty-one countries after a long discussion, accepted the scheme and they published a U.N. Charter. On 24th October 1945, the United Nations came into being. The UN Headquarters is located in New York, USA.

Aims of the UNO

• Even before the end of the war, in August 1941, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met on a battleship, the Cruiser, in the mid-Atlantic. There, they drew up the Atlantic Charter, which was released on August 14, 1941.

The Atlantic Charter had the following objectives:

(1) To maintain inter­national peace and security;

(2) To encourage international cooperation in the spheres of social, economic and cultural developments;

(3) To develop friendly relations among nations on principles of equal rights and self- determination;

(4) To recognise the fundamental rights of all people.

United Nations declaration or the Washington declaration:

• On January 1, 1942, representatives of 26 Allied nations gathered in Washington and signed the Declaration of United Nations, endorsing the principles of the Atlantic Charter. This marked the first use of the term ‘United Nations.’ Membership was to be open to all peace-loving states. Later, representatives from fifty nations met in San Francisco to sign the UN Charter. Poland signed it afterward, becoming one of the original 51 member states.

The fundamental aims of the U.N.O. as set forth in the Charter are :

(i) To maintain and preserve international peace and security.

(ii) To develop friendly relations and harmony among the countries.

(iii) To grant equal rights and self-determination to all countries.

(iv) To solve economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems through international cooperation.

(v) To promote respect for human rights, dignity and freedom.

(vi) Not to intervene in the matters which are directly related with the domestic jurisdiction of any country.

12.3 Organization of the U.N.O.

The U.N.O. consists of six main bodies which are as follows:

(i) The General Assembly.

(ii) The Security Council

(iii) The Economic and Social Council

(iv) The Trusteeship Council.

(v) The International Court of Justice

(vi) The Secretariat.

The General Assembly

• It is a deliberative body of the United Nations Organization. This body consists of five representatives of each member state. But each member state has only one vote. The main function of this organ is to consider issues relating to international peace and security and to discuss important international problems. UNO has a Secretary General. The official languages of UNO are English, French, Spanish, Russian, Chinese and Arabic. Now [2006] UN has 192 member countries.
• Every September, the entire membership of the United Nations convenes in the General Assembly Hall in New York for its annual session, featuring a general debate where many heads of state deliver addresses.
• Key decisions on significant matters like peace and security, admission of new members, and budgetary issues necessitate a two-thirds majority vote in the General Assembly. Other decisions are reached by a simple majority.
• The President of the General Assembly is elected annually by the assembly members to serve a one-year term.

The Security Council

• The Security Council is the chief executive body of the United Nations. It consists of fifteen members: five permanent members and ten temporary members. The permanent members are Russia, China, the United States, France, and Great Britain. The main function of the Security Council is to preserve peace and security worldwide. It can take diplomatic and economic measures against nations that violate the UN Charter. Each of the five permanent members holds a powerful vote known as the veto.
• The Security Council promotes peaceful settlement of disputes among parties and proposes methods for resolution or terms for settlement.
• Additionally, the Security Council recommends nominees for Secretary-General to the General Assembly and advises on the admission of new UN members.
• Critics often highlight the Security Council’s absolute veto power held by the five permanent members as the UN’s least democratic aspect. This veto power has been blamed for international delays in addressing war crimes and crimes against humanity, as it can obstruct decisive action.

The Economic and Social Council

• This council is composed of eighteen members (there are twenty-seven members at present). All members of this council are elected by the General Assembly. It is directly responsible to the General Assembly. The fundamental principle of this body is to create a spirit of universal respect for human rights and to promote a higher cultural educational standard. Its function is to raise the standard of living of the people, to assure them employment.
• The United Nations believes that world peace can be maintained only when people enjoy a high economic and social standard of living. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) works through cooperation with several specialized agencies and commissions, including the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the International Bank, and the World Health Organization (WHO). Since 1945, this organ has undoubtedly rendered great services to humanity.

The Trusteeship Council

• This Council is composed of the representatives of permanent members of the Security Council, representatives of all those states which hold the administration of colonies and some other representatives elected by the General Assembly. The main function of the Trusteeship Council is to preserve the interests of the territories handed over to it and to help the General Assembly in the administration of those countries over which the U.N.O. holds Trusteeship.

The International Court of Justice

• The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the judicial organ of the United Nations. It is headquartered in The Hague, Netherlands. The ICJ is composed of fifteen judges elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council for nine-year terms. Its main function is to resolve legal disputes between member states of the United Nations.

The Secretariat

• It consists of the working staff of the U.N.O. The chief of the Secretariat is the Secretary-General, who is appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. The main function of this body is to assist all bodies of the U.N.O.

12.4 Achievements of the U N O

• From the very beginning, the United Nations Organization had to deal with a large number of conflicts and problems in the international field. The Security Council of the U.N.O. made several efforts to solve those problems. However, the efforts of the Security Council have been significantly hampered by the frequent use of the veto power. In the years 1946-47, Russia exercised its veto right on twenty-two occasions. Despite this serious handicap, the United Nations has still achieved success in solving many problems. Some of them are as follows:

Decolonisation

• The United Nations (UN) assisted colonized countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America in achieving their independence from colonial powers. This process is known as decolonization. After the establishment of the UN, decolonization proceeded relatively quickly in many parts of the world.

Maintenance of Peace

• The main function of UNO had been the maintenance of peace in the world. UNO achieved peace in the following conflict situations.

The Problem of Iran

• On 1st January 1946, Iran presented a complaint against Russia before the U.N.O. The root cause of the conflict was stationing of Russian troops in Iran. U.N.O. took a very strong line as a consequence of this, the Russian troops were withdrawn from Iran, which had been stationed there for many years. This was the first and the most important achievement of the U.N.O.

Syria and Lebanon

• Similar complaint was also made by Syria and Lebanon before the U.N.O. Both of them requested the U.N.O. that British and French troops should be immediately removed from their respective states. The Security Council made efforts and eventually succeeded in securing the withdrawal of British and French troops from those states.

Indonesia

• After the end of the Second World War, the nationalists living in Indonesia established a republican government. But the Dutch living in the colonies of Java and Sumatra rose in rebellion against the nationalists. The Security Council issued a cease-fire order to both sides. The Dutch agreed to grant full independence to Indonesia.

The Palestine Problem

• After the end of the First World War, Palestine had been handed over to Great Britain under the mandate system. But the struggle arose between the Arabs and the Jews which created disturbance and tension in Palestine. After the Second World War U.N.O. appointed a special committee to study the problem of Palestine. The Committee recommended the immediate partition of Palestine into three parts: an Arab State, a Jewish State, and the City of Jerusalem, which was to be governed by the Trusteeship Council of the UN. As a result, the independent state of Israel was established for the Jews in 1948.
• However, the Arabs strongly opposed the partition plan for Palestine and rose in revolt against the Jews. This led to a civil war breaking out in Palestine between the Arab League and the newly established Israel. The UN took effective steps to diffuse the tension in Palestine.

The Kashmir Problem

• This problem arose between India and Pakistan. Both of them fell into a state of great rivalry on this issue. This problem was brought to the notice of the U.N.O. It made its best efforts to remove hostility and differences between them. As a result of its mediation, the war was stopped between India and Pakistan. But this problem could not be solved permanently. It still awaits a peaceful and permanent solution.

The Problem of Korea

• Before the start of the Second World War, Korea was entirely under Japanese control. After the war, the Soviet Union and the United States agreed to divide Korea along the 38th parallel. On June 25, 1950, North Korean forces launched a fierce attack on South Korea. The issue was brought before the United Nations, and the Security Council decided to take strong measures against North Korea. The UN deployed its forces under the command of General Douglas MacArthur of the United States. A ceasefire agreement was reached on July 27, 1953, leading to the withdrawal of UN military action.

Other Important Problems

• The United Nations (UN) has endeavored to facilitate peaceful resolutions to various global issues, including the Suez Crisis (1956), the Cyprus issue (1960), the Congo problem (1960), and the Gulf War (1990). In addition to conflict mediation, the UN has been actively involved in promoting arms control and disarmament, with a particular focus on nuclear disarmament and the regulation of nuclear weapons.

12.5 Non-Political Achievements

UNO has achieved considerable success in non-political matters.

1. Promoting democracy– The United Nations has enabled people in over 45 countries to participate in free and fair elections, including those held in Cambodia, Namibia, El Salvador, Eritrea, Mozambique, Nicaragua and South Africa. It has provided electoral advice, assistance, and monitoring of results.
2. Promoting development –The UN system has devoted more attention and resources to the promotion of the development of human skills and potentials than any other external assistance effort. The annual expenditures of the system, encompassing both loans and grants, exceed $10 billion. The UN Development Programme (UNDP), working closely with over 170 Member States and various UN agencies, devises and executes initiatives in agriculture, industry, education, and environmental conservation. It manages a portfolio of over 5,000 projects with a budget totalling $1.3 billion, making it the largest provider of multilateral grant assistance for development. The World Bank, a leading institution in rallying international support for developing nations globally, has provided loans totalling $333 billion for development projects since its inception in 1946. In addition, UNICEF spends more than $800 million a year, primarily on immunization, health care, nutrition and basic education in 138 countries.
3. Promoting human rights –Since adopting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, the United Nations has helped enact dozens of comprehensive agreements on political, civil, economic, social and cultural rights. By examining individual complaints of human rights violations, the UN Human Rights Commission has drawn global attention to instances of torture, disappearances, and arbitrary detentions. This scrutiny has led to international pressure on governments to enhance their human rights practices.
4. Protecting the environment –The United Nations has played a vital role in fashioning a global programme designed to protect the environment. The “Earth Summit,” officially known as the UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, produced treaties addressing biodiversity and climate change. Additionally, all participating countries adopted “Agenda 21,” a comprehensive action plan aimed at advancing sustainable development, which emphasizes economic growth while conserving natural resources.
5. Preventing nuclear proliferation –The United Nations, through the International Atomic Energy Agency, has helped minimize the threat of a nuclear war by inspecting nuclear reactors in 90 countries to ensure that nuclear materials are not diverted for military purposes.
6. Alleviating chronic hunger and rural poverty in developing countries –The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) has developed a system of providing credit, often in very small amounts, for the poorest and most marginalised groups that has benefited over 230 million people in nearly 100 developing countries.
7. Focusing on African development –For the United Nations, Africa continues to be the highest priority. In 1986, the United Nations organized a special session to mobilize international support for African economic recovery and development. The UN also established a system-wide task force to ensure that commitments made by the international community are upheld and challenges are addressed. The Africa Project Development Facility has facilitated financing for new enterprises in 25 countries, supporting entrepreneurs across the region. The Facility has completed 130 projects which represent investments of $233 million and the creation of 13,000 new jobs. It is expected that these new enterprises will either earn or save some $131 million in foreign exchange annually.
8. Promoting women’s rights – A long term objective of the United Nations has been to improve the lives of women and to empower women to have greater control over their lives. During the UN-sponsored International Women’s Decade, a series of conferences established an agenda for advancing women’s rights throughout the remainder of the century. The UN Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) and the International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW) have been instrumental in supporting programs and projects aimed at enhancing the quality of life for women in more than 100 countries. These initiatives encompass access to credit and training, adoption of new food-production technologies, access to markets, and other efforts to promote women’s economic participation.

Specialized Agency of United Nations: The specialized agencies of the United Nations are independent organizations that collaborate with the UN to address specific global challenges. They were established either before World War I, after the First World War, or during the League of Nations era. Over time, these agencies have adapted and expanded their roles to meet new global demands. They operate within the framework of the UN Charter, specifically in Articles 57 and 63.

Here are some key UN specialized agencies:

1. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization): Founded in 1945, FAO directs global efforts to combat hunger and improve food security by modernizing agricultural practices in developing nations.
2. ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization): Established in 1944 under the Chicago Agreement, ICAO oversees international civil aviation to ensure safe and orderly air transport development.
3. IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development): Founded in 1977, IFAD aims to alleviate rural poverty in developing countries by providing financial assistance and promoting sustainable agriculture.
4. ILO (International Labour Organization): Established in 1919 and later became a specialized agency of the UN in 1946, ILO sets global labor standards, advocates for workers’ rights, and promotes decent work opportunities.
5. IMF (International Monetary Fund): Formed in 1945, IMF facilitates international monetary cooperation, stabilizes exchange rates, and supports member countries facing economic crises.
6. World Bank: Established in 1945, the World Bank provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries for infrastructure projects and poverty reduction.
7. IMO (International Maritime Organization): Focuses on maritime safety, security, and prevention of marine pollution.
8. ITU (International Telecommunication Union): Established in 1865, ITU coordinates global telecommunications standards and promotes ICT access worldwide.
9. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization): Founded in 1945, UNESCO promotes education, cultural heritage, and freedom of expression globally.
10. WHO (World Health Organization): Founded in 1948, WHO leads international efforts on global health issues, sets health standards, and provides technical assistance to member states.
11. UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development): Assists developing countries in leveraging trade, technology, finance, and investment for sustainable development.
12. UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime): Combats illicit drugs, transnational crime, and terrorism globally.
13. UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees): Established in 1950, UNHCR protects and assists refugees and displaced persons worldwide.
14. ESCAP (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific): Supports economic and social development in Asia and the Pacific region through research, normative standards, and technical assistance.

• These agencies play critical roles in promoting international cooperation, addressing global challenges, and advancing sustainable development goals across various regions and sectors.

Challenges faced by United Nations:

• The United Nations (UN) faces several challenges and limitations in its efforts to promote international peace, security, development, and human rights. Here are some of the key challenges and limitations:

1. Political Influence and Power Dynamics: The UN’s effectiveness is often hindered by power struggles among its member states, especially among the permanent members of the Security Council (P5: United States, Russia, China, United Kingdom, France), who hold veto power. This can lead to gridlock and inaction on critical global issues.
2. Financing and Budget Constraints: The UN relies heavily on voluntary contributions from member states, which can lead to funding gaps and inconsistent financial support for its operations and programs. This limits the UN’s ability to respond swiftly and effectively to crises and long-term development needs.
3. Complex Bureaucracy and Decision-Making Process: The UN’s bureaucratic structure and consensus-based decision-making processes can be slow and cumbersome, making it difficult to adapt quickly to changing global dynamics and emergencies.
4. Limited Enforcement Mechanisms: While the UN Security Council has the authority to impose sanctions and authorize military action to maintain or restore international peace and security, enforcement of its decisions can be challenging, particularly if member states do not cooperate or if there is opposition from powerful countries.
5. National Sovereignty and Non-Interference: The principle of national sovereignty often limits the UN’s ability to intervene in internal conflicts or human rights abuses within member states, unless there is a clear threat to international peace and security or a mandate from the Security Council.
6. Geopolitical and Regional Conflicts: Ongoing geopolitical tensions and regional conflicts can prevent consensus among member states on key issues, leading to deadlock in decision-making and undermining the UN’s role as a neutral mediator or peace broker.
7. Lack of Accountability and Transparency: Criticism of the UN includes concerns about accountability, transparency, and effectiveness in managing resources and implementing programs. This can erode trust and confidence in the organization’s ability to deliver on its mandates.
8. Resource Allocation and Prioritization: Limited resources and competing priorities often force the UN to prioritize certain crises or development goals over others, which can leave some regions or issues underfunded or neglected.
9. Adaptation to Contemporary Challenges: The UN faces challenges in adapting its structures and mandates to address emerging global issues such as climate change, cyber security, and pandemics, which require innovative approaches and cooperation across sectors.
10. Public Perception and Legitimacy: Despite its global mandate and achievements, the UN sometimes faces criticism and skepticism from the public and member states regarding its effectiveness, relevance, and ability to deliver tangible results.

• Addressing these challenges requires ongoing reform efforts, increased cooperation among member states, enhanced financial support, and a commitment to uphold the principles and purposes of the UN Charter. Despite its limitations, the UN remains an indispensable forum for international cooperation and a key actor in addressing global challenges.