I.   The Role and Impact of Science & Technology: 1

Theme 2:   Science & Scientists in Medieval India

Theme 3:   Science in colonial and Modern India

Theme 4:   India’s Key Scientific and Technological Milestones Since Independence

Theme 5:   Organization of Science and Technology in India

Theme 6:   Human Capacity Building Programmes & Entrepreneurship Initiatives

Theme 7:   Science and Technology Impact on Industrial Growth and Quality of Life in India

·        Town Planning: Drainage, irrigation systems, dams, water storage, multi-story buildings.

·        Geometry: Consistent brick ratio of 1:2:4, knowledge of measurement.

Vedic Age

·       Proto-Indo-Iranian Migration: 1800 BC – 1500 BC.

·       Vedas as Key Sources: Indicative of scientific progress.

·       Mathematics: Arithmetic, geometric progressions, Pythagorean knowledge.

·       Astronomy: Lunar phases, solar cycles, solstices.

·       Medical Science: Ayurvedic knowledge on anatomy and physiology.

·       Philosophy: Materialistic thought (Charvaka), and ritualistic practices.

Notable Metallurgical Achievements

·       Wootz Steel: Sharpness and toughness, known as Damascus steel.

·       Zinc Usage: Early distillation in Rajasthan (9th century AD).

·       Susruta Samhita: Detailed surgical instruments & procedures.

·       Chemistry: Knowledge of metals, salts, alkalis.

·       Metallurgy: Advanced alloy creation, Wootz steel, and zinc distillation.

·       Iron Pillar: Technical excellence in rust prevention

Post-Vedic Astronomy

·       Siddhanta-Jyotisha: Early works – sun, moon, and planetary motions.

·       Mahayuga Concept: Defined as 4.32 million years, reflecting Earth’s solar motion.

·       Knowledge Exchange: Trade routes enabled exchange with Greece and Europe.

Linguistics and Sanskrit Standardization

·       Creation of Sanskrit: Derived from spoken languages like Pali and Prakrit.

·       Panini’s Contribution: Standardized grammar, simplified learning.

·       Role in Ideas: Common medium – intellectual exchange across the subcontinent.

·       Alphabet Arrangement: Scientific 5×5 consonant matrix based on articulation.

·       Vedic Age Contributions: Shulvasutra, Brahmana literature, and Vedanga Jyotisha.

·       Jain Mathematicians: Conceptualized large numbers and infinity.

·       Pingala: Contributions to Pascal’s triangle and Fibonacci numbers.

Aryabhata (5th Century AD):

·       Mathematics: Aryabhatiya contributions – square roots, progressions, and series.

·       Astronomy: Explained Earth’s rotation, solar and lunar eclipses.

Zero and Place-Value System:

·       Invention in India: Development of zero and place-value system (1^st – 3^rd centuries AD).

·       Arabic Adoption: Spread to Arab world and Europe.

Algebraic Contributions:

·       Brahmagupta (628 AD): Quadratic equations, indeterminate solutions.

·       Sridhar Acharya: Systematized quadratic equations.

Geometry and Trigonometry:

·       Aryabhata: Introduced trigonometric functions.

·       Varahamihira and Bhaskara: Provided sine and cosine tables.

Kerala School (14th – 16th Century):

·       Advancements: Infinite series, power series, early calculus concepts.Top of FormBottom of Form

·       Personal Education: Individualized learning with a sage or teacher.

·       Gurukula System: Students lived – teachers for education and services.

Buddhist Period:

·       Learning Centers: Stupas and Mutts as centers of communal learning.

·       Monastic Living: Knowledge exchange in monastic communities.

·       Shift in Model: Transition from personal to communal education.

Prominent Centers:

·       Takshashila: Early center, prominent in the Buddhist period.

·       Nalanda: Established 5th century AD, major learning hub.

·       Other Centers: Pushpagiri, Odantapuri, Vikramshila, etc.

·       International Students: Centers attracted foreign scholars, including from China.

Decline of Science in Ancient India

Rigid Caste System:

·       Impact on Exchange: Limited idea exchange between social groups.

·       Intellectual Withdrawal: Loss of active participation in science and arts.

·       Blocked Collaboration: Lack of coordination between thinkers and doers.

Moral Code Books (Shastra):

·       Restrictions on Practices: Discouraged dissection and surgical practices.

·       Loss of Knowledge: Practical sciences like surgery and anatomy declined.

Vedanta Philosophy:

·       Material World as Maya: Spread of Samkara’s Vedanta, viewing material world as illusion.

·       Impact on Scientific Inquiry: Hindered scientific thought by dismissing material pursuits.

·       Decline of Materialistic Philosophies: Lokayata and similar philosophies diminished.

·       Adoption: Arab educational model, royal patronage, set curriculum.

·       Important Scholars: Sheikh Abdullah & Sheikh Azizullah (rational sciences, headed madrasas in Sambal and Agra).

·       Foreign Scholars: Contributions from Arabia, Persia, Central Asia.

Curriculum Reforms

·       Reforms: Primary education – subjects – Arithmetic, Mensuration, Geometry, Astronomy, Public Administration, Agriculture.

·       Synthesis: Indian traditional science integrated with medieval approaches.

Karkhanas

·       Establishment: Large workshops (karkhanas), for vocational and technical training.

·       Training: Artisan training for young individuals, covering diverse crafts and trades.

·       Narayana Pandit: Ganitakaumudi, Bijaganitavatamsa

·       Gangadhara: Lilavati Karamdipika, Suddhantadipika, Lilavati Vyakhya.

·       Nilakantha Somasutvan: Tantrasamgraha.

·       Ganesa Daivajna: Buddhivilasini (commentary on Lilavati).

·       Krishna (Valhalla family): Navankura (on Bhaskara II’s Bijaganit).

·       Faizi: Translated Bhaskara’s Bijaganit at Akbar’s behest.

Notable Works:

·       Nilakantha Jyotirvida: Tajik (astronomy with Persian terms).

·       Naisiru’d-din-at-Tusi: Mathematical contributions.

·       Babur and Akbar: Interested -breeding domestic animals (elephants, horses).

·       Jahangir: Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (experiments on breeding, hybridization).

·       Mansur: Court artist, elegant animal portraitures.

Chemistry

·       Applications: Paper production (Kashmir, Patna, Mysore), gunpowder and fireworks.

·       Sukraniti: Described gunpowder-making (saltpeter, sulphur, charcoal).

·       Perfume: Ain-i-Akbari describes attar production; discovered by Nurjehan.

Astronomy

Key Figures

·       Mehendra Suri: Invented Yantraja.

·       Paramesvara, Mahabhaskariya: Kerala astronomers.

·       Nilakantha Somasutvan: Commentary on Aryabhatiya.

·       Kamalakar: Expertise in Islamic astronomy.

·       Jai Singh II: Built observatories in Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura.

·       Key Works: Rasachikitsa (mineral-based medicine), Siddha system in Tamil Nadu.

Unani Medicine:

·       Ali-bin Rabban: Firdausu-Hikmat (summarized Greek and Indian medicine).

·       Hakim Diya Muhammad: Majiny-e-Diyae (Arabic, Persian, and Ayurvedic).

·       Firoz Shah Tughlaq: Tibbe Firozshahi.

·       Aurangzeb: Tibbi Aurangzebi.

Agriculture:

·       Staple Crops: Wheat, rice, barley, cotton, sugarcane.

·       New Crops: Tobacco, chillies, potato, guava.

·       Innovations: Mango grafting by Jesuits in Goa.

·       State Role: Land measurement systems, irrigation techniques (wells, tanks, canals).

·       Scientific Societies: Asiatic Society (1784) – Agricultural-Horticultural Society (1817)-Calcutta Medical & Physical Society (1823).

·       British Administration (Post-1858): Geological Survey of India (1851) – focus on natural resource exploration.

·       Education System: Macaulay’s influence – English as medium, lack of critical thinking – Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras universities (1857).

·       Science Education (1870s): Science introduced in Indian universities – Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta offered science degrees.

·       Government-Linked Research: Focus on agriculture, geology, health; contributions to malaria, cholera, and plague research.

·       Bacteriological Research: Emphasis on clinical treatment, rise of the pharmaceutical industry.

·       Indian Response: Indian intellectuals founded independent scientific institutions.

·       Promotion of Science in Indian Languages: Ram Mohun Roy and others popularized science in local languages.

·       Swadeshi Movement: Focus – science and technology education, industrialization goals.

·       Challenges for Indian Scientists: Limited research opportunities & discrimination in salaries.

·       University College of Science, Calcutta (1904): P.C. Ray, C.V. Raman – eminent teachers.

·       Indian Science Congress Association (1914): Promoted scientific collaboration and inquiry.

·       Indian Industrial Commission (1916): Addressed India’s industrial dependence -Britain.

·       Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (1942): Established for post-war scientific development.

·       Impact of WWII: Boosted- Indian industrial capacity.

·       Post-War Reconstruction: A.V. Hill report (1944), greater roles for Indian scientists.

·       Post-Independence Expansion: Science Policy Resolution (1958), focus on technological growth.

·       Research Challenges: Low research expenditure – developing countries, brain drain to developed nations.

·        Establishment of Institutes: National Physical Laboratory, National Chemical Laboratory, Central Electrochemical Research Institute.

·        New Institutes: Radio and Electronics Research Institute, Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Central Salt Research Station.

1957 – 1967: Green Revolution

·        Agricultural Research: Focus – crop yield, irrigation, fertilizers, and agricultural equipment.

·        Green Revolution: Led – self-reliance in food grain production.

·        Aryabhata Satellite (1975): Designed for X-ray astronomy, solar physics, and aeronomy.

1977 – 1987: AGNI Missile

·        Agni Missile: Demonstrated re-entry, maneuverability, propulsion, and guidance capabilities.

1987 – 1997: DNA Fingerprinting

·        DNA Fingerprinting (1988): Developed – CSIR-CCMB, making India -3^rd country to develop the technology.

1997 – 2007: Pokhran-II Nuclear Test

·        Pokhran-II (1998): Successful underground nuclear tests – leading to “National Technology Day.”

·        Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) (2013): First interplanetary mission – Mars study, lauded for cost-effectiveness.

·        Polio-Free India (2014): Successful vaccination campaign leading – WHO certification.

2017 – Present: Gaganyaan Programme and COVID-19 Vaccine Development

·        Gaganyaan Programme: India’s first human spaceflight mission to Low Earth Orbit.

·        COVID-19 Vaccine Research: India became -leading manufacturer & exporter of COVID-19 vaccines, with over 170 crore doses administered by 2022.

·        Startup India (2016): Encouraged innovation and creation – 52,000 startups in India.

·        Comprises the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR), and Department of Science and Technology (DST).

Department of Science and Technology (DST) (Estb May 1971)

·        Promotes S&T policies, cross-sectoral linkages, biofuel R&D, and international cooperation.

·        Nano Mission (2007): DST’s major initiative – nanoscience, Phase-II approved – Rs. 650 cr.

·        Autonomous Bodies: Includes Aryabhatta Research Institute, Indian Science Congress, SERB, Raman Research Institute, and others.

Statutory / Autonomous Bodies:

·        Includes prominent institutes like Indian Academy of Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, and Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences.

·        Autonomous Institutes: National Institute of Immunology, National Brain Research Centre, Institute of Bioresources, and several others.

·        Future Goals: International collaborations, industry partnerships, and support for young researchers.

Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) (Established 1985)

·        Focuses on promoting industrial R&D, developing indigenous technologies, and enhancing commercialization.

Key Programmes

·       Industrial R&D Promotion Programme (IRDPP): Supports R&D units, research organizations, and public institutions.

·       Patent Acquisition and Collaborative Research and Technology Development (PACE): Facilitates the transition from concept to commercialization with industry partnerships.

DSIR Schemes:

·        PACE: Catalyzes industry-institution collaborations for new technology development with funding support.

·        Industrial R&D Programme (IRD): Includes common research facilities, technology hubs, and support for women’s technology development.

• Aryabhatta Research Institute
• National Institute of Immunology
• Raman Research Institute
• Indian Institute of Astrophysics
• National Centre for Cell Science
• Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology

Focus Areas and Initiatives

• Nano Science and Technology: Nanoelectronics, energy & environment, quantum materials.
• Biotechnology Research: Agriculture, health, regenerative medicine.
• Promoting Innovations: Through PRISM, supporting start-ups, MSMEs, and individual innovators.

Key Milestones:

·        DST’s Nano Mission (2007): India achieved 3rd position globally – nanoscience publications.

·        DBT’s Institutes: Centers for DNA Fingerprinting, National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute, and Stem Cell Science have become pivotal in their fields.

• PRISM: Supports individual innovators & MSMEs -achieve inclusive development (aligned -12th Five-Year Plan, 2012-2017).
• Eligibility: Open – Indian citizens – innovative ideas, institutions, autonomous organizations, & societies under Societies Registration Act, 1860, or Indian Trusts Act, 1882.
• Focus: Development of state-of-the-art technology solutions – MSME clusters.

Department of Space and ISRO

·        Objective: Promote space science and technology for national development.

Key Programs:

·       Launch Vehicle Program: Indigenous launch capabilities for spacecraft.

·       INSAT Program: Telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology, and education.

·       Remote Sensing Program: Satellite imagery for developmental purposes.

·       R&D in Space Sciences: Focus on national development.

·        History:

·       1962: Formation – INCOSPAR (Indian National Committee for Space Research).

·       1969: Establishment of ISRO.

·       1972: Formation -Space Commission and DOS, with ISRO under DOS.

·       Leadership: DOS – direct purview – PMO, headed by the Secretary of Space.

Science for Equity Empowerment and Development (SEED) Division

·        Obj: Leverage S&T – socio-economic development, improving – quality of life – disadvantaged communities.

·        Focus: Empower communities – technology interventions – promoting sustainable development and livelihoods.

·        Schemes and Programs:

o   Supports action-oriented, location-specific projects led by scientists, NGOs, and field-level workers.

o   Aligned with national development goals and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

o   Converges with line ministries for last-mile delivery of technology solutions.

·        Scope: Targets students from school to university for careers in scientific research.

Components:

·        INSPIRE Internship: Top 1% Class X students (age 16-17) participate – 5-day science camps.

·        Scholarship for Higher Education (SHE): 12,000 scholarships annually for top students (age 17-22) to pursue B.Sc./M.Sc. in natural sciences.

·        INSPIRE Fellowship: 1,000 fellowships for top M.Sc. students to pursue Ph.D. (age 22-27).

·        INSPIRE Faculty Fellowship: 100 Ph.D. holders (age 27-32) to conduct research in basic and applied sciences for 5 years.

INSPIRE-MANAK

·        Goal: Encourage innovation -students aged 10-15 (Classes 6-10).

·        Scale: Targets 10 lakh ideas; 1 lakh students receive Rs. 10,000 awards.

·        Process: Schools nominate students online; ideas presented at District, State, and National levels.

Programmes:

·        WISE-PhD: Fellowship for women aged 27-45 to pursue Ph.D. in science.

·        WISE-PDF: Postdoctoral fellowships for women aged 27-60 in basic/applied sciences.

·        WIDUSHI: Research support for senior women scientists (up to age 62).

·        WISE-SCOPE: Encourages women scientists to work on societal challenges.

·        WISE-IPR: 1-year internship in Intellectual Property Rights for women aged 25-45.

·        WINGS: International research opportunities for women scientists.

Vigyan Jyoti

·        Goal: Increase female participation in STEM, especially in underrepresented fields.

·        Scale: Implemented in 250 districts; supports 25,000 girls in Class IX-XII annually.

·        Participants: 30 Indian institutions in the GATI pilot program.

National Science & Technology Entrepreneurship Development Board (NSTEDB) (1982)

·        Obj: Promote science and technology-based entrepreneurship.

·        Key Programmes:

o   NIDHI: Supports startups from idea to global scale.

o   NIDHI-PRAYAS: Provides prototyping support.

o   NIDHI-EIR: Reduces risk for aspiring entrepreneurs.

o   NIDHI-TBI: Converts innovations-startups.

o   NIDHI-SSS: Provides early-stage investment.

Goal: Build an innovation-driven entrepreneurial ecosystem.

Components:

·       NIDHI-GCC: Scouting innovations.

·       NIDHI-PRAYAS: Prototype support.

·       NIDHI-TBI: Technology Business Incubator.

·       NIDHI-Accelerator: Fast-tracks startups.

·       NIDHI-CoE: World-class facility for startups to scale globally.Top of Form

·       AI in Manufacturing: Enhanced productivity, reduced errors, seen in companies like Maruti Suzuki and Tata Motors.

·       Automation: Robotics in factories improves precision and output.

Information Technology:

·       IT Hubs: Bangalore and Hyderabad as global centers for software development.

·       GDP & Employment: Major contribution to India’s economic growth and job creation.

Biotechnology:

·       Genetically Modified Crops: Increased agricultural yield and disease resistance, aiding food security.

·       Pharmaceutical Innovations: Biotech advancements drive growth in healthcare and agriculture.

·       Telemedicine: Bridging rural-urban healthcare gaps with platforms like eSanjeevani OPD.

·       Portable Diagnostics: Devices like Swasthya Slate enable on-the-spot health tests in rural areas.

·       AIIMS Digital Health: AI-driven healthcare solutions, including digital records and teleconsultation.

Education through Technology:

·       E-Learning Platforms: National initiatives like DIKSHA and Swayam Prabha offer digital education.

·       NDEAR: Aims to create scalable digital infrastructure for education, promoting AI-based learning.

Renewable Energy:

·       Gujarat Solar Park: One of the world’s largest solar parks, significantly reducing carbon emissions.

·       Tamil Nadu Wind Energy: Leading state in wind energy, contributing to cleaner power and job creation.

I.   The Role and Impact of Science & Technology: 2

Technology Policy Statement (TPS 1983):

·       Emphasized technology development for self-reliance in science and technology.

·       R&D Investment: Aim – increase R&D investment to 2% of GDP.

·       Incentives: Encourage return of Indian-origin scientists.

·       Science Diplomacy: Promote international cooperation with developing nations.

·       National Innovation Ecosystem: Engages private-sector- R&D, focuses – agriculture, health, water, and manufacturing.

·       Global Collaborations: Participation – global projects like LHC, LIGO, ITER.

·       Private-Sector Involvement: Encouraged to foster public-private partnerships in innovation.

Tracks:

·       Track-I: Public consultation – stakeholder engagement.

·       Track-II: Thematic group consultations – 150+ experts.

·       Track-III: Ministries and state consultations for regional STI policies.

·       Track-IV: Institutional coherence through multi-stakeholder engagement.

Each mission involves relevant ministries, institutions, scientists, and industries.

1. Natural Language Translation

• Objective: Remove language barriers – accessing science and technology materials – Indian languages & English.
• Lead Agencies: Ministry of Electronics & IT, Ministry of HRD, DST.

2. Quantum Frontier

• Objective: Advance quantum technologies -national security and applications – computing, cryptography, and sensors.
• Lead Agencies: DST, Department of Space, DRDO, Department of Atomic Energy.

3. Artificial Intelligence (AI)

• Objective: Focus – AI solutions – healthcare, agriculture, education, smart cities, & infrastructure.
• Lead Agencies: NITI Aayog, DST, Ministry of Electronics & IT.

4. National Biodiversity Mission

• Objective: Catalog and map India’s biodiversity to enhance conservation, agricultural productivity, and livelihoods.
• Lead Agencies: Ministry of Environment, Department of Biotechnology.

5. Electric Vehicles (EVs)

• Objective: Develop EV subsystems specific to India (motors, batteries), making EVs economically viable.
• Lead Agencies: DST, Department of Heavy Industries, Ministry of Power, NITI Aayog.

• Objective: Create genomic reference maps, improve diagnosis, and address rare diseases.
• Lead Agencies: Department of Biotechnology, Department of Health.

7. Waste to Wealth

• Objective: Develop waste management technologies to generate energy, recycle materials, and support the Swachh Bharat mission.
• Lead Agencies: Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Urban Development.

8. Deep Ocean Exploration

• Objective: Explore deep oceans, develop technologies for underwater vehicles, and study marine ecosystems.
• Lead Agencies: Ministry of Earth Sciences, Geological Survey of India, DRDO.

9. AGNII (Accelerating Growth of New India’s Innovations)

• Objective: Support the commercialization of innovations by connecting innovators with industry and markets.
• Lead Agency: Invest India.

Additional Initiatives by the Principal Scientific Adviser’s Office

1.      Earth Museum: Repository- fossil preservation and geological research.

2.      I-STEM: National portal for R&D facilities.

3.      Energy Security: Committee to procure critical minerals for EVs and mobility.

Key Objectives:

1.      Deploy 10,000+ GPUs – build advanced AI computing infrastructure.

2.      Foster responsible & inclusive AI growth – enhancing data quality & developing indigenous AI capabilities.

Ministry:

• Managed – Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY).

Funding:

• Public-private partnership model – funding – duration -five years.

Implementing Agency:

• IndiaAI Independent Business Division – Digital India Corporation.

·       Improve government efficiency & public service delivery.

2.       AI Compute & Systems:

·       Deploy advanced computing systems for AI R&D.

3.       Data for AI:

·       Standardize data management & provide access to non-personal datasets for startups and researchers.

4.       AI, IP & Innovation:

·       Foster innovation and intellectual property generation in AI.

5.       Skilling in AI:

·       Future Skills Prime: AI certification program by NASSCOM and MeitY.

·       Responsible AI for Youth: Skill development in AI for school students.

6.       AI Ethics & Governance:

·       Establish ethical AI frameworks and promote responsible AI development.

2.       Digital India & India Stack: Infrastructure – digital services and AI applications.

3.       AIRAWAT: AI supercomputer at C-DAC Pune – high-performance AI research.

4.       National Supercomputing Mission: Build – supercomputing network to boost computational capabilities.

5.       MeitY Quantum Computing Applications Lab: Develop quantum computing – AI advancements.

6.       Data Management Office: Standardize data management practices across sectors.

7.       India Datasets Program & India Data Platform: Provide non-personal datasets – support innovation and research.

2.      MeitY Start-up Hub: Support platform for AI startups.

3.      Proposed National Centre on AI (NCAI): Centralized facility- AI research.

4.      RAISE (Responsible AI for Social Empowerment): Utilize AI – social empowerment & tackling societal challenges.Top of FormBottom of Form

Objectives:

·        Boost productivity via modern tech.

·        Ensure affordable inputs (seeds, fertilizers, etc.).

·        Promote post-harvest tech & R&D.

Objectives:

·       Reduce import dependency

·       Enhance productivity & post-harvest tech.

·       Focus on oil palm cultivation

Objectives:

·       Crop productivity & sustainability.

·       Soil health & climate-resilient practices.

Technology Mission on Cotton – 2000

Aim: Promote sustainable cotton cultivation.

Objectives:

·       Productivity, profitability.

·       Sustainable practices & R&D.

Components:

·       Livestock development & health.

·       Capacity building & market access.

Jute Technology Mission – 2015

Aim: Promote the jute sector.

Objectives:

·       Improve raw jute quality.

·       R&D, capacity building.

Objectives:

·       Crop diversification, productivity.

·       Post-harvest management, export promotion.

Technology Mission on Coconut – 2014

Aim: Profitable coconut cultivation.

Objectives:

·       Productivity, eco-friendly practices.

·       R&D and entrepreneurship.

Objectives:

·       Increase value addition.

·       Create rural employment & promote R&D.

National Saffron Mission – 2010

Aim: Promote saffron cultivation.

Objectives:

·       Increase saffron productivity.

·       Sustainable use of genetic resources.

1.      Increased Productivity: Cutting-edge tech boosted agricultural yield.

2.      Enhanced Quality: Improved product quality, aiding exports.

3.      Sustainable Practices: Eco-friendly methods reduced harmful chemicals.

4.      Capacity Building: Entrepreneurship training created jobs.

5.      Market Access: Helped farmers tap foreign markets.

1.      Farm-Lab Gap: Lack of awareness among farmers about new tech.

2.      Lack of Integration: Weak coordination with local institutions like NGOs.

3.      Financial Constraints: Small farmers unable to afford modern tech.

4.      Inadequate Infrastructure: Cold storage limitations hindered perishable crops.

·       Definition: Broader term – Information Technology (IT), – communication technologies – wireless networks, social media, and video conferencing.

·       Evolution: ICT concepts & tools continuously evolve, integrating audio-visual, computer, & telecommunication systems.

Education

·        E-learning: Online education platforms (e.g., Coursera, edX, Khan Academy).

·        LMS (Learning Management Systems): Course management tools (e.g., Moodle, Blackboard).

·        Educational Apps: Interactive apps for learning on tablets/smartphones.

·       Email: Quick written communication.

·       Social media: Platforms (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, Instagram) -global connection.

·       Instant Messaging: Real-time communication (e.g., WhatsApp, Telegram).

Business and Commerce

·        E-commerce: Online buying & selling platforms (e.g., Amazon, Alibaba).

·        ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning): Managing business processes.

·        CRM (Customer Relationship Management): Managing customer interactions.

·        Video Conferencing: Virtual meeting tools (e.g., Zoom, Microsoft Teams).

·       Telemedicine: Remote medical consultations and treatments.

·       Health Monitoring Apps: Fitness trackers, wearable health devices.

Government Services

·        E-Government: Online platforms for citizen services.

·        Digital IDs: Secure online identification (e.g., Aadhaar).

·        Smart Cities: ICT for urban planning and management.

Entertainment

·       Streaming Services: On-demand content (e.g., Netflix, Spotify).

·       Gaming: Online and mobile gaming platforms.

·       AR (Augmented Reality) & VR (Virtual Reality): Enhancing user experiences.

·       Fleet Management Systems: Optimizing logistics operations.

·       Ride-Sharing Apps: On-demand transportation (e.g., Uber, Lyft).

Agriculture

·       Precision Farming: Sensors and data for efficient farming.

·       Market Information Systems: Providing farmers with market data.

·       Weather Forecasting: Accurate weather predictions using ICT.

Energy

·       Smart Grids: Efficient energy distribution and management.

·       Energy Monitoring Systems: ICT for energy use optimization.

·       Renewable Energy Management: Integrating data for managing renewable energy.

Research and Development

·       Simulation Software: Used in engineering and science.

·       Collaborative Tools: Platforms for global researcher collaboration.

·       Data Analysis Tools: Processing and analyzing large datasets using ICT.

·        Copper wires twisted together; widely used for telephone lines and LAN connections.

·        Example: Ethernet cables for wired networking.

·       Central conductor, insulating layer, metallic shield,& outer insulation; used for high-frequency signal transmission.

·        Example: Cable TV (CATV) and broadband internet connections.

·        Transmit data using light signals through thin strands – glass/plastic.

·        Total Internal Reflection: Optical phenomenon where light is reflected back into the core, guided by a higher refractive index. Essential for signal retention in fiber optics.

·        Example: Used for long-distance communication, high-speed internet, and telecommunications.

• Universal cables for data transfer and power connection between devices and computers.
• Example: USB cables – connecting smartphones to computers – file transfers or charging.

1. Wi-Fi:

• Wireless internet and local network connectivity within a specific range using a Wi-Fi router.
• Example: Connecting laptops or smartphones to home or public Wi-Fi networks.

2. Bluetooth:

• Short-range wireless communication between devices for data exchange.
• Example: Pairing smartphones with wireless earphones or connecting a wireless keyboard to a computer.

3. Cellular Networks:

• Mobile communication services using radio signals over large geographic areas.
• Example: Making phone calls, sending texts, and accessing mobile data on smartphones.

4. NFC (Near Field Communication):

• Short-range communication using electromagnetic radio fields between devices when brought close.
• Example: Contactless payments using smartphones or accessing data by tapping NFC cards.

• Uses satellites to transmit signals for long-distance communication.

Example: Satellite phones for remote communication or emergency services.

Visible Light Communication (VLC)

1. Medium:

• VLC uses LED light for high-speed data transmission, modulating light intensity undetectable to the human eye.

2. Advantages:

• High-Speed: Capable of high data transfer rates.
• Security: Secure due to confined light-based communication.
• No RF Interference: Operates outside radio frequencies, avoiding interference.

3. Applications:

• Indoor Positioning: Location-based services indoors.
• Li-Fi: High-speed wireless internet using light bulbs for data transmission.

4. Challenges:

• Line-of-Sight: Requires direct visual line between LED transmitter and receiver.
• Limited Range: VLC is limited to visible light, obstructed by obstacles.

·        WSIS (2003, 2005): UN initiative to address ICT challenges.

·        ITU (1865): UN agency for ICT coordination (HQ: Geneva).

World Wide Web

·        Web 1.0 (1990s): Static content, basic HTML.

·        Web 2.0 (2000s): User-generated content, social media (e.g., Facebook).

·        Web 3.0 (2010s): Personalized, AI-integrated, semantic web.

·        Email: Gmail, Outlook for communication.

·        Social media: Facebook, Twitter for networking.

·        Search Engines: Google, Bing for information search.

·        Streaming Services: Netflix, YouTube for videos and music.

·        E-commerce: Amazon, eBay for online shopping.

·        Video Conferencing: Zoom, Teams for virtual meetings.

·        Cloud Storage: Google Drive, Dropbox – file access.

·        Online Banking: Managing finances digitally.

·        Gaming: Xbox Live for online gaming.

·        VoIP Services: Skype, WhatsApp for internet calls.

·        Deep Web: Not indexed by search engines (e.g., academic databases).

·        Dark Web: Hidden, accessed via specialized browsers (e.g., Tor).

Generations of Mobile Networks

1.      1G (1980s): Analog, basic voice services.

2.      2G (1990s): Digital, SMS, GSM technology.

3.      2.5G (1990s): GPRS, EDGE with improved data rates.

4.      3G (2000s): High-speed data, video calls (UMTS).

5.      4G (2009): LTE for high-speed data and VoLTE.

6.      5G (2020): Ultra-fast data, low latency, IoT support.

·        5G Labs (2023): 100 labs for 5G innovation in India.

·        Bharat 6G Mission: Focus on affordable, sustainable, and ubiquitous 6G technologies (2023–2030)

·        LAN: Local Area Network (e.g., office network).

·        WAN: Wide Area Network (e.g., the internet).

·        MAN: Metropolitan Area Network (e.g., city-wide networks).

·        PAN: Personal Area Network (e.g., Bluetooth devices).

·        SAN: Storage Area Network for data storage.

·        VPN: Secure, private network over a public one (e.g., corporate VPNs)

·        Market Growth: Increase IT/ITES revenue from USD 100 billion to USD 300 billion by 2020.

·        Exports: Expand exports from USD 69 billion to USD 200 billion by 2020.

·        Innovation: Promote R&D in areas like cloud computing, social media, and mobile services.

·        SMEs and Startups: Provide fiscal benefits for IT adoption.

·        Employment: Create 10 million skilled manpower jobs by 2020.

·        E-literacy: Make at least one individual in every household e-literate.

·        Public Services: Mandate electronic delivery of govt services.

·        Equity in Education and Health: ICT for key social sectors- education, health, and rural development.

·        Language Technologies: Make India a hub for development of multilingual content.

·        Security: Strengthen regulatory frameworks for cybersecurity.

Three Core Areas

1.      Digital Infrastructure: Secure, stable digital infrastructure for India.

2.      Digital Services: Deliver govt services digitally.

3.      Digital Literacy: Universal digital literacy.

       Key Initiatives

4.      Bharat Broadband Network Limited (BBNL): Create – National Optical Fiber Network (NOFN) -connect 2.5 lakh Gram Panchayats.

5.      Common Service Centres (CSCs): Access points for public services, healthcare, financial services, education in rural and remote areas.

6.      Accessible India Campaign: Enhance accessibility – people with disabilities across built environments & digital platforms (Sugamya Bharat Abhiyaan).

7.      AgriMarket App: Provides real-time crop price information to farmers using mobile GPS within 50km of their location to avoid distress sales.

8.      Beti Bachao Beti Padhao: Ensure the birth, nurture, and education of girls in 100 districts, promoting gender equality.

·       Objective: Simplify digital transactions using UPI.

·       Functionality: Enables direct bank-to-bank payments via mobile numbers or payment addresses.

·       Platform: Available on Android (Google Play Store).

Crime and Criminal Tracking Network & Systems (CCTNS)

·       Launch: 2009

·       Objective: Modernize policing & enhance investigation and crime detection efficiency.

·       Functionality: Provides IT-enabled crime tracking and networking infrastructure.

Crop Insurance Mobile App

·       Objective: Calculate insurance premiums for notified crops.

·       Functionality: Provides -premium details, subsidy information, and coverage for farmers.

Digital AIIMS

·       Launch: 2015

·       Objective: Provide every patient at AIIMS with a digital health identity linked to Aadhaar.

·       Outcome: Unique health identification number for each patient.

e-Granthalaya

·       Developed By: NIC (National Informatics Centre)

·       Objective: Integrated library management software for automating libraries and providing online member services.

·        Functionality: Connects Panchayat representatives with the world, fostering local empowerment.

eBiz

·        Objective: Improve business environment by offering government-to-business (G2B) services online.

·        Developed By: Infosys under DIPP, Ministry of Commerce & Industry.

DigiLocker

·        Objective: Provide digital document storage for citizens and access to government-issued documents.

UMANG (Unified Mobile Application for New-age Governance)

·        Objective: Provide citizens with mobile access to government services.

e-Sign

·        Objective: Facilitate digital signing of documents using Aadhaar-based OTP authentication.

MyGov

·        Launch: 2014

·        Objective: Facilitate participatory governance.

·        Users: Over 2.76 crore registered users.

MeriPehchaan

·        Launch: 2022

·        Objective: Provide a National Single Sign-On (NSSO) platform for citizens to access government portals.

Jeevan Pramaan

·        Objective: Digitize the life certificate process for pensioners, eliminating the need for physical presence.

National Knowledge Network (NKN)

·        Obj: Establish – high-speed data communication network connecting educational and research institutions.

·        Coverage: 1,752 institutions connected.

Challenges to Digital India Mission

1.      Slow Internet Speeds: Limited internet speed and Wi-Fi hotspots, especially in rural areas.

2.      Digital Divide: Significant gap – internet usage b/n men (57%) and women (33%) in India.

3.      Struggles for SMEs: Difficulty – adopting digital technologies.

4.      Limited Smartphone Capabilities: Entry-level phones lack advanced features for internet access.

5.      Shortage of Skilled Professionals: Insufficient training opportunities for digital technology skills.

6.      Cybersecurity Needs: 1 million cybersecurity professionals needed.

7.      User Education: Lack of digital literacy, esp – rural areas.Bottom of Form

·        Example without Net Neutrality: ISPs may charge extra for specific websites or slow down certain services.

·        Example with Net Neutrality: Equal treatment for all websites, services, and apps, with consistent internet speeds for users.

National Supercomputing Mission (2015)

·       Goal: Build India’s supercomputing capacity, estimated at ₹4,500 crore.

·       Notable Systems: Pratyush, Mihir (IITM, Pune, and NCMRWF, Noida).

·       AI Supercomputer: AIRAWAT (ranked 75th globally).

India’s Quantum Mission (2020):

·       Budget: ₹8,000 crore.

·       Goal: Develop 50-100 qubit quantum computers in 5 years and progress to 1000 qubits in 8 years.

·       Challenges: Quantum error correction (QEC) and global collaboration.

·       Key Focus: Quantum computing, communication, sensing, and materials.

Cloud Computing

• Definition: Delivers services (storage, applications) over the internet from centralized data centers.
• Characteristics: Centralized, scalable, relies on robust internet connection.
• Use Cases: Web hosting, big data, SaaS, IaaS, PaaS.
• Challenges: Latency, internet dependency.

Hybrid Computing

• Definition: Combines cloud and edge computing for flexibility.

Measurement: Speed – FLOPS (floating-point operations per second).

Top Countries (June 2023):

·       US: 150 supercomputers.

·       China: 134.

·       Germany: 36.

·       Top System: Frontier at ORNL, US, exceeding 1 Exaflop/s.

Edge Computing

·       Definition: Data processing closer to data source (e.g., IoT devices).

·       Characteristics: Decentralized, low-latency, bandwidth efficiency.

·       Use Cases: IoT, autonomous vehicles, AR/VR, real-time analytics.

Key Provisions:

1.      Online safety and trust.

2.      Guidelines for AI and blockchain technologies.

3.      Support for an open internet with regulations.

4.      Review of “safe harbor” principles.

Challenges:

·       Impact on innovation.

·       Freedom of expression concerns.

·       Enforcement difficulties.

GI Cloud Initiative (MeghRaj)

·       Launched by Government of India: Implements cloud computing in governance to optimize ICT spending.

·       Benefits: Cost reduction, scalability, efficient service delivery, security, standardization.

·        Common Cyber Threats: Malware, ransomware, botnets, Trojans, phishing, DDoS attacks.

·        Cyber Resilience: Ability to recover quickly from cyber incidents.

National Cyber Security Policy (2013)

·       Objective: Secure cyberspace and protect critical information infrastructure.

·       Goals: Create a workforce of 500,000 skilled professionals and enhance global cooperation.

·       Nodal Agency: CERT-In (since 2004), the national incident response team.

• Objective: Raise awareness about cybercrime and train government IT officials.
• Initiated By: Ministry of Electronics and IT (MeitY).

National Cyber Security Reference Framework (NCRF)

·        Objective: Provide strategic guidance for cybersecurity, especially in critical sectors.

·        Target Sectors: Telecom, power, banking, transportation, healthcare, and more.

Budapest Convention (2004)

• Definition: The world’s first binding international treaty – cybercrime.
• Aim: Prevent & detect crimes committed via the internet.
• India’s Stance: Non-member of the Budapest Convention.

·        Weak Cybersecurity Regulation: Ranked 17th – MIT’s Cyber Defense Index (CDI) 2022/23.

·        Recent Ransomware Attacks: Attacks on AIIMS, Oil India, and power utilities in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh.

Ransomware Groups

·        Recent Threats: Groups -“Akira” – targeted vital Indian infrastructure, encrypting data and demanding ransom payments.

·        Methods: FDM, SLA, SLS, PolyJet.

·        Applications: Prototyping, manufacturing, aerospace, medical.

·        Key Developments:

·       India’s 1st 3D-printed post office (2023) – Bengaluru, built by L&T.

·       India’s 1st prototype bridge using 3D printing – IIT-H and Simpliforge.

·       Skyroot’s Dhawan-II -3D-printed cryogenic engine – Successful 200-second test (2023).

·        Methods: Smart materials, programmable matter, hydrogels.

·        Applications: Biomedical devices (self-assembling implants), responsive architecture, smart consumer goods (adaptive furniture), infrastructure (materials adjusting to environmental changes).

AR Definition: Enhances real-world environment with digital content (e.g., Pokémon Go, Microsoft HoloLens).

Applications:

·       VR: Gaming, virtual tours, training.

·       AR: Navigation, gaming, educational tools.

Interaction:

·       VR: Full interaction in digital environments.

·       AR: Blends real-world and digital interaction.

·        Key Features: Shared spaces, persistent environment, user-generated content, virtual economy, cross-platform compatibility.

·        Applications: Social interaction, virtual real estate, digital commerce, gaming.

·       Key Components: Distributed ledger, smart contracts, public key cryptography.

·       Applications: Finance (cryptocurrency), energy (peer-to-peer trading), media (digital rights management), retail (authenticity verification).

Evolution:

·       1st Gen (2008): Bitcoin and virtual currencies.

·       2nd Gen: Smart contracts (Ethereum).

·       3rd Gen: Emerging applications (supply chain, healthcare).

·       Public: Permissionless, decentralized (Bitcoin, Ethereum).

·       Private: Controlled by a single organization (Ripple).

·       Hybrid: Mix of private and public features (digital currency).

·       Consortium: Shared by organizations (Global Shipping Business Network).

·       Improved Efficiency: Faster, more transparent business transactions via smart contracts.

·       Faster Auditing: Chronologically immutable records.

·       Key Features: Uniqueness, smart contracts, ownership, royalties, interoperability.

·       Applications: Digital art, music, virtual real estate, gaming.

·       Concerns: Environmental impact due to energy consumption of blockchain networks (Ethereum).

Advantages of Robotics

·       Safety: Reduces human risk – dangerous tasks.

·       Productivity: Works continuously, improving efficiency in repetitive tasks.

·       Accuracy: High precision, ensuring quality and consistency.

·       Cost Savings: Reduces labor costs, boosts long-term savings through automation.

·       Flexibility: Can be reprogrammed for multiple tasks across industries.

Disadvantages of Robotics

·       Task Suitability: Limited in creativity and complex decision-making.

·       Economic Displacement: Robots can replace human jobs in certain sectors.

·       High Initial Costs: Expensive to develop, purchase, and maintain.

·       Dependency: Over-reliance may reduce human skills and increase vulnerability to tech failures.

·       Security Risks: Vulnerable to hacking and cyber-attacks, posing security threats

·       Use: Manufacturing, production (welding, painting, assembly).

·       Impact: Increased efficiency, automation in industries.

2.      Service Robots:

·       Use: Domestic chores, healthcare, hospitality, customer service.

·       Impact: Enhanced human assistance in non-industrial settings.

3.      Medical Robots:

·       Use: Surgery, rehabilitation, diagnostics, patient care.

·       Impact: Precision in medical procedures, improving healthcare outcomes.

4.      Autonomous Vehicles:

·       Use: Self-driving cars, drones, autonomous delivery.

·       Impact: Independent navigation, transforming transportation and logistics.

5.      Humanoid Robots:

·       Use: Research, entertainment, human-robot interactions.

·       Examples: ASIMO, Sophia.

·       Impact: Human-like interaction and assistance.

·       Use: Working alongside humans in industries like manufacturing.

·       Impact: Enhanced productivity, collaboration with human workers.

7.      Agricultural Robots:

·       Use: Planting, harvesting, crop health monitoring.

·       Impact: Precision agriculture, improving farming efficiency.

8.      Exploration and Space Robots:

·       Use: Space missions, underwater exploration.

·       Examples: Mars rovers, deep-sea robots.

·       Impact: Exploration in extreme environments.

9.      Defense and Military Robots:

·       Use: Surveillance, bomb disposal, search-and-rescue.

·       Impact: Safer military operations, hazardous task performance.

10.   Educational Robots:

·       Use: Teaching robotics, programming, problem-solving.

·       Impact: Enhances STEM learning, hands-on education.

11.   Entertainment Robots:

·       Use: Robotic pets, humanoid companions, interactive toys.

·       Impact: Entertainment, human interaction.

·        Enhanced Properties: Increased strength, better conductivity, reactivity, and unique optical characteristics.

Significance: Nanotechnology- innovation – various industries, – potential – solve global challenges in healthcare, energy, environment, and more.

·       Fabrics: Wrinkle-resistant, stain-resistant, antibacterial.

·       Coatings: Water-repellent, scratch-resistant, self-cleaning.

·       Lightweight materials for automotive and aerospace industries.

2.      Electronics & IT:

·       Miniaturization of transistors.

·       Flexible electronics (smart fabrics, displays).

·       Improved data storage devices.

·       Nanomedicine: Targeted drug delivery (e.g., cancer treatment).

·       Diagnostics: Advanced imaging and early disease detection.

·       Tissue engineering and bone repair.

4.      Energy:

·       Solar cells: Increased efficiency, flexible designs.

·       Batteries: Faster charging, better efficiency.

·       Energy-efficient materials.

·       Water purification: Removal of pollutants.

·       Air filtration: Contaminant removal.

·       Oil spill cleanup -nanomaterials.

6.      Transportation:

·       Lightweight vehicles – better fuel efficiency.

·       Real-time infrastructure monitoring with nanosensorsTop of Form

I.   The Role and Impact of Science & Technology: 3

·        Space technology: Tools and gadgets for space exploration, satellite communication, Earth observation, and space research.

·        Examples: Rockets (launch vehicles), satellites, space probes, telescopes, and communication networks.

Applications of Space Technology:

1.      Weather Forecasting: Satellites predict weather patterns.

2.      GPS Navigation: Guides phones and vehicles using satellites.

3.      TV and Communication: Satellites transmit signals for global TV, phone, and internet services.

4.      Internet Everywhere: Space tech enables global internet connectivity.

5.      Planetary Exploration: Robots explore planets (e.g., Mars rovers).

6.      Agriculture: Monitors crops and assists in efficient farming.

7.      Environmental Monitoring: Satellites track Earth’s health and climate change.

·       Rockets carry payloads (satellites, astronauts) into space.

·       Range: Small satellite launchers to powerful crewed missions.

2.      Satellites:

·       Artificial objects in orbit for communication, Earth observation, weather forecasting, navigation, and defense.

3.      Space Probes:

·       Uncrewed spacecraft for exploring celestial bodies (planets, asteroids, comets).

4.      Space Telescopes:

·       Observatories in space (e.g., Hubble, James Webb) for studying celestial objects without atmospheric interference.

5.      Human Spaceflight:

·       Enables astronauts to live and work in space (e.g., ISS missions, Moon, Mars exploration).

6.      Space Robotics:

·       Robotic systems used in assembling, repairing, and conducting experiments in space.

7.      Propulsion Systems:

·       Advanced systems for spacecraft maneuvering, orbit changes, and interplanetary travel.

8.      Space Communication Networks:

·       Enables data transmission between space missions and Earth.

9.      Space Environment Monitoring:

·       Studies space weather affecting satellites and human missions.

·        Weather Forecasting: Accurate predictions save lives during extreme weather events.

·        GPS: Essential for transportation, logistics, and personal navigation.

·        Scientific Discoveries: Space missions expand knowledge about the universe.

·        Medical Advances: Microgravity research leads to new treatments and medical innovations.

·        Material Science: Development of stronger, lighter materials for various industries.

·        Energy: Potential for space-based solar power.

·        Precision Agriculture: Satellites assist in crop monitoring and sustainable agriculture.

·        STEM Motivation: Space missions inspire careers in science and technology.

2.      Geostationary Orbit (GEO): Satellites appear stationary over a point on the equator; used for TV and weather monitoring.

3.      Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Close to Earth (160-1000 km); used for imaging satellites, ISS, and large constellations for communication.

4.      Polar and Sun-Synchronous Orbit (SSO): Polar orbits pass near the poles; SSO ensures the satellite visits the same spot at the same local time.

5.      Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO): Transfer orbits used to move satellites from one orbit to another.

Notable Indian Space Missions:

2.      INSAT (Communication Satellites):

·       Established in 1983 with INSAT-1B; revolutionized India’s communication sector.

3.      IRS (Earth Observation Satellites):

·       Starting with IRS-1A in 1988, used for agriculture, water resources, urban planning, and disaster management.

4.      Space Science Missions:

·       Astrosat: India’s first dedicated multi-wavelength space observatory.

·       Mangalyan (Mars Orbiter Mission): India’s first interplanetary mission (2013).

5.      Navigational Satellites (NavIC):

·       India’s regional navigation system enhancing positioning over India and surrounding regions.

·        Founder: Vision of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai.

·        Department: Major constituent of the Department of Space (DOS), under Government of India.

·        Mission: Application of space technology for national needs (e.g., communication, weather forecasting, navigation).

·        Key Technologies:

·       PSLV, GSLV launch vehicles for satellite deployment.

·       Satellites: Communication, Earth observation, navigation.

·        Chairman of ISRO: Also Secretary of DOS and Chairman of Space Commission.

·       Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC): Thiruvananthapuram – Build launch vehicles.

·       U R Rao Satellite Centre (URSC): Bengaluru – Design and develop satellites.

·       Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC): Sriharikota – Launch vehicles, satellite launches.

·       Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC): Valiamala, Bengaluru – Develop liquid stages and cryogenic engines.

·       Space Applications Centre (SAC): Ahmedabad – Remote sensing and communication tech.

·       National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC): Hyderabad – Remote sensing data processing.

·       Physical Research Laboratory (PRL): Ahmedabad – Astronomy, Astrophysics, etc.

·       Formed: 2020 (Space sector reforms).

·       Role: Promote and supervise private sector participation in space.

·       Headquarters: Ahmedabad.

2.      Antrix Corporation Limited (ACL):

·       Incorporated: September 1992, Bengaluru.

·       Role: Commercial arm of ISRO for promoting space products and services worldwide.

3.      NewSpace India Limited (NSIL):

·       Incorporated: March 6, 2019.

·       Role: Commercial exploitation of space products, production of PSLV, SSLV, satellites, tech transfer.

4.      National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL):

·       Location: Gadanki, near Tirupati.

·       Focus: Atmospheric research and technology development.

·        Launch base for ISRO: PSLV, GSLV launches.

·        Facilities: Solid propellant processing, static testing, telemetry, tracking, command, mission control.

·        Launch Pads: 2 for PSLV, GSLV; 1 for sounding rockets.

Significant Missions & Terms:

Dogleg Maneuver:

·       Launch payloads for polar orbits avoid flying over land (e.g., Sri Lanka).

·       The trajectory curves to the south to prevent land overflight, consuming more fuel.

·       Payload: Up to 1,750 kg to SSPO; 1,425 kg to Sub-GTO.

·       Stages: 4 (Solid, Liquid, Solid, Liquid).

·       Key Missions: Chandrayaan-1 (2008), Mars Orbiter Mission (2013).

·       Known as “workhorse of ISRO” due to reliability.

Sounding Rockets

·        First Launch: 1963 (Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station).

·        Purpose: Research upper atmospheric regions, testing new tech.

·       First Flight with Indigenous Cryo Stage: January 5, 2014.

·       Payload to GTO: 2,250 kg; LEO: 6,000 kg.

·       Stages: 3 (Solid, Liquid, Cryogenic).

·       Used – launching communication satellites into Geo Transfer Orbits.

Human Rated Launch Vehicle (HRLV)

·        Mission: Gaganyaan (India’s human spaceflight program).

·        Rocket: Human-rated version of LVM3.

·        Features: Crew Escape System, Low Earth Orbit (400 km).

Scramjet Engine

·        ISRO’s First Experimental Mission: August 28, 2016.

·        Air-breathing propulsion system using atmospheric oxygen.

·       Payload to GTO: 4,000 kg; LEO: 8,000 kg.

·       Stages: 3 (Solid, Liquid, Cryogenic).

·       Heavy-lift vehicle for ISRO.

SSLV (Small Satellite Launch Vehicle)

·       Payload: ~500 kg to 500 km planar orbit.

·       Stages: 3 (Solid Propellant).

·       Key features: Low cost, flexible, minimal infrastructure required.

Key Launch Vehicle Components

1.      PSLV:

·       First Stage: Solid motor (S139) + 6 solid boosters.

·       Second Stage: Liquid rocket (Vikas engine).

·       Third Stage: Solid rocket motor.

·       Fourth Stage: Earth storable liquid engines.

2.      GSLV Mk II:

·       First Stage: Solid motor + 4 liquid strap-ons.

·       Second Stage: Vikas engine.

·       Third Stage: Indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage.

3.      LVM3:

·       Solid Strap-on Boosters: S200.

·       Core Stage: Liquid (L110).

·       Upper Stage: Cryogenic (C25, powered by CE-20 engine).

·       First Flight: 1980 (Placed Rohini satellite in orbit).

·       First successful Indian satellite launch vehicle.

2.      ASLV (Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle):

·       Payload: 150 kg to Low Earth Orbit (LEO).

·       First Flight: 1987; Successful Flight: 1992 (SROSS-C).

Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV-TD):

• ISRO’s technology demonstrator for reusable launch vehicles.
• Goal: Reduce cost of space missions.
• Current focus: Orbital Re-entry Experiment (ORE) using modified PSLV/GSLV stages.

Satellite Launch Milestones

·       INSAT-1B: 1983, revolutionized Indian communications.

·       IRS-1A: 1988, India’s first remote sensing satellite.

·       Launch Date: April 19, 1975.

·       By: Soviet Union.

2.      Rohini (First Satellite launched by Indian-made Vehicle):

·       Launch Date: July 18, 1980.

·       Vehicle: SLV-3 (Satellite Launch Vehicle).

3.      INSAT (Indian National Satellite System):

·       First Launch: 1988.

·       Purpose: Telecommunications, meteorology, TV broadcasting, disaster warning.

4.      IRS (Indian Remote Sensing Satellites):

·       First Launch: 1988.

·       Purpose: Resource monitoring, management.

·       Specialized Satellites:

§  RISAT-1 (Radar Imaging Satellite): 2012.

§  SARAL (Satellite with Argos and Altika): 2013 (Indian-French mission for ocean measurements).

5.      Launch Vehicles:

·       PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle): For polar orbits.

·       GSLV (Geostationary Satellite Launch Vehicle): For geostationary orbits.

·       LVM3 (Heavy-lift GSLV): For heavy payloads.

6.      Missions:

·       Chandrayaan-1 (Moon Mission): 2008.

·       Chandrayaan-2: 2019.

·       Mars Orbiter Mission: 2013.

7.      Future Plan:

·       Gaganyaan (Manned Mission): Scheduled for 2024.

·       Vehicle: PSLV-C57.

·       Launch Site: Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota.

·       Orbit: Lagrangian point L1 (1.5 million km from Earth).

Why Study the Sun?

·       Predict Space Disruptions: Safeguard spacecraft and protect astronauts.

·       Scientific Insights: Study extreme thermal and magnetic phenomena.

Scientific Goals:

·       Study Coronal Heating.

·       Analyze Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs).

·       Observe Pre-flare & Flare activities.

·       Understand Space weather dynamics.

·       Measure Solar wind distribution.

Payloads:

·       VELC: Study solar corona and CMEs.

·       SUIT: Images of photosphere/chromosphere.

·       ASPEX & PAPA: Solar wind analysis.

·       SoLEXS & HEL1OS: Solar X-ray flares.

·       Magnetometer: Measures interplanetary magnetic fields.

Lagrange Points (Key Location for Aditya-L1):

·       Definition: Equilibrium points in space where a small object experience balanced gravitational forces between two larger bodies.

·       Example: Sun-Earth system.

·       Total Points: 5 (L1, L2, L3, L4, L5).

·       L1 Location: Between Sun and Earth, 1% of the Earth-Sun distance.

·       Allows for continuous observation of the Sun.

Limitations of Aditya-L1:

·       Directional Limitation: Cannot study multi-directional solar phenomena.

·       Payload Constraints: Limited mass, power, and volume for comprehensive solar study.

·        Objective: Demonstrate safe landing, roving on the Moon’s surface, and conduct scientific experiments.

·        Launch Vehicle: LVM3 from SDSC SHAR, Sriharikota.

·        Components: Lander & Rover (Pragyan).

·        Lander Payloads:

·       ChaSTE: Measure thermal conductivity/temperature.

·       ILSA: Lunar seismic activity.

·       LP: Plasma density variations.

·       NASA’s Laser Retroreflector: For lunar laser ranging studies.

·        Rover Payloads:

·       APXS (Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer): Elemental composition.

·       LIBS (Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscope): Analyze surface elements.

·        Mission Life: One lunar day (~14 Earth days).

·        Significant Achievement: First country to land near Moon’s South Pole; discovery of sulfur by Pragyan rover.

Chandrayaan-3’s Historic Landing on Moon’s South Pole

Significance:

·       Water Ice Discovery: Resources for future lunar bases.

·       Geological Insights: Study of ancient craters, materials from early solar system.

·       Potential Lunar Habitat Sites: Stability in temperature, presence of resources.

SSLV Missions

1.      SSLV-D1/EOS-02 (August 7, 2022):

·       Outcome: Mission failed; satellites not placed in orbit.

2.      SSLV-D2/EOS-07 (February 10, 2023):

·       Outcome: Successful launch.

·       Payloads: EOS-07, Janus-1, AzaadiSAT-2.

GSLV-F10/EOS-03 (August 12, 2021)

·        Outcome: Mission failure due to Cryogenic Upper Stage anomaly.

·       Payload: NVS-01 satellite (Navigation with Indian Constellation – NavIC).

·       First use of indigenous atomic clock.

2.      PSLV-C56/DS-SAR (July 30, 2023):

·       Payload: DS-SAR developed with Singapore.

·       Technology: Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) for all-weather imaging.

3.      PSLV-C55/TeLEOS-2 (April 22, 2023):

·       Mission Type: Commercial (Singapore partnership).

·       POEM: Orbital experiments using spent PS4 stage.

4.      LVM3-M3/OneWeb India-2 (March 26, 2023):

·       Payload: 36 OneWeb satellites.

·       Achievement: Sixth successful LVM3 mission.

Major ISRO Milestones

1.      Aryabhata (First Satellite):

·       Launch Date: April 19, 1975 (Soviet Union).

2.      Rohini (First Indian Launch Vehicle):

·       Launch Date: July 18, 1980 (SLV-3).

3.      INSAT (Telecommunications Satellite):

·       First Launch: 1988.

·       Expanded to GSAT series.

4.      Chandrayaan-1 (First Moon Mission):

·       Launch Date: 2008.

5.      Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan):

·       Launch Date: November 5, 2013.

·       Achievements:

§  First successful Mars mission by India.

§  Mission Life: 7 years (designed for 6 months).

§  Awards: “Space Pioneer Award” (2015), Indira Gandhi Prize for Peace, Disarmament, Development.

6.      AstroSat (First Indian Astronomy Mission):

·       Launch Date: September 28, 2015.

·       Objective: Study celestial sources in multiple wavelengths.

Strategic Implications:

• Space Collaborations: Future partnerships with NASA, ESA.
• Astronomy Research: South Pole ideal for space observations, free from Earth’s interference.

·        Objective: Satellite-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) for safety-of-life applications

·        Operational Since: 2015

2.       Fuel Efficiency: Enables direct routing, reducing circling approaches, resulting in significant fuel savings.

3.       Increased Airspace Capacity: Allows multiple approaches, enhancing capacity of airports and airspace.

4.       Operational Efficiency: Reduces air traffic controller workload with precise navigation data.

5.       Global Navigation: Provides seamless navigation across all flight phases, including oceanic areas, with high accuracy.

2.      Marine Navigation: Being evaluated for marine operations to improve navigation accuracy in coastal and oceanic areas.

3.      Surveying & Data Collection: Employed by organizations like Karnataka Forest Department and AAI for accurate surveys, forest management, and airport surveys.

4.      Space Weather Studies: Utilized for developing ionospheric models in the Asia-Pacific region, aiding research in space weather and satellite communications.

·        ISRO Focus: Collaborates with global space agencies for mutual benefits in science, tech, and social applications.

·        Strategic Cooperation: Influenced by political, economic, scientific factors.

History

·        Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS): Early international partnership for rocket launches.

·        Aryabhata, Bhaskara Missions: Collaborative satellite missions with international payloads.

·        Chandrayaan-1 (2008): First mission to Moon with joint ISRO-NASA discovery of water molecules on the lunar surface.

·        MEGHA-TROPIQUES (2011): Indo-French collaboration studying climate and monsoons.

·        SARAL (2013): Indo-French mission studying ocean altimetry.

·       Collaboration with NASA; LEO observatory for Earth monitoring.

·       Focus: Ecosystems, ice mass, sea levels, natural hazards.

·       Target launch: January 2024.

2.      LUPEX (Lunar Polar Exploration Mission)

·       Joint mission with JAXA (Japan) for lunar south pole exploration.

·       Launch: 2026; JAXA provides rover, ISRO provides lander.

3.      Artemis Accords (2025)

·       India signed the US-led lunar exploration accords aimed at human moon landings and Mars exploration.

International Treaties

1.      Outer Space Treaty (1967)

·       Signed by US, USSR, UK. Prevents sovereignty claims over outer space and celestial bodies.

2.      Moon Treaty (1984)

·       Establishes that the Moon is for the benefit of all humanity.

·       India signed the Outer Space Treaty, but did not ratify the Moon Treaty.

·        Data Portals: Access through Bhuvan and Bhoonidhi.

o   Applications: Urban planning, agriculture, water management, forestry.

·       Applications in planning, resource management, disaster monitoring, and agriculture.

MOSDAC (Meteorological and Oceanographic Satellite Data Archival Center)

·        Repository for meteorology, oceanography, and tropical water cycle data.

·        Supports disaster management for floods, cyclones, and landslide monitoring.

·       India’s regional navigation system for accurate positioning and timing services.

·       Used in transportation, agriculture, and scientific research.

2.      GAGAN (GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation)

·       Jointly developed by ISRO and AAI.

·       Enhances navigation accuracy for aviation, railways, and marine navigation.

·        GPS uses 24 satellites for global navigation, applied in telecommunications, military, and logistics.

Atomic Clocks

·        Timekeeping in GPS: Atomic clocks ensure precise time, essential for GPS accuracy.

·        A 38-microsecond offset can lead to 10 km errors.

·        Objective: Educating school children (Class IX) on Space Technology, Science, and Applications.

·        Aim: Encourage STEM research and career through hands-on sessions.

·        Participants: 150 students across India.

·        Duration: 2-week residential program.

Mission Prarambh

·        Launch Vehicle: Vikram-S by Skyroot Aerospace (First private launch vehicle in India).

·        Launched: November 18, 2022, from Sriharikota.

·        Significance: Marks India’s growing private sector in space exploration.

·        Established: Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management (DSSAM).

·        Components: Radar, Optical Telescope, Control Center (Peenya, Bengaluru).

·        Kessler Syndrome: Hypothesis where increasing space debris leads to more collisions.

Agnikul Cosmos

·        Startup: Based at IIT-Madras.

·        Project: Launch of Agnibaan SOrTeD with a 3D-printed single-piece engine.

·        Launchpad: Private launchpad in Sriharikota, expected launch by 2023.

·       Objective: Demonstrate Anti-satellite (ASAT) capability.

·       Achievement: Destroyed a satellite in Low Earth Orbit (300 km) in 2019.

·       India: Now part of the ASAT league with the U.S., Russia, China.

Bharatiya Antariksha Station (Indian Space Station)

·        Prime Minister Modi’s Directive: Establish an Indian Space Station by 2035.

·        Moon Mission: Set a goal for an Indian astronaut to land on the moon by 2040.

·        Goals: Series of Chandrayaan missions, new launch vehicles, and interplanetary missions to Venus and Mars.

·        Vision 2023: Encourage private sector participation in the space economy.

·        ISRO Role: Shift focus to R&D and new technologies, while industry handles mature systems.

·        IN-SPACe: Regulatory body ensuring a level playing field for Non-Government Entities (NGEs).

Private Sector in Space Technology

·       India’s Space Economy Goal: Increase share from 2% to 15% by 2047.

·       Recent Achievements: Success of Chandrayaan-3 and plans for an Indian Space Station.

·       Tech Innovations: Focus on in-orbit servicing, propulsion systems, and AI.

·       Regulatory Framework: Concerns over policy clarity; calls for Space Activities Bill.

·       Infrastructure Needs: Private players need testing facilities and government support.

·       Space Data: Proposals to democratize space data for innovation.

·       Crewed Moon Mission: First crewed flight around the Moon in NASA’s Artemis Program.

·       Objective: Establish a long-term presence on the Moon; test SLS rocket and Orion spacecraft.

·       Significance: Prepares for future crewed Mars missions; involves diverse crew with the first woman and person of color landing on the Moon.

·       Follow-Up Missions:

·       Artemis III: Crewed Moon landing.

·       Artemis IV & V: Establish lunar Gateway station and further exploration.

·       Objective: High-altitude balloon mission for studying astrophysical phenomena.

·       Altitude: 130,000 feet (40 km) to observe far-infrared light.

ARIEL (ESA)

·        Launch: 2028

·        Objective: Study exoplanet atmospheres using a space telescope.

·        NASA’s CASE Instrument: Analyze clouds and hazes for a comprehensive view.

·       Objective: Study the Universe from the Big Bang to the formation of solar systems.

·       Orbit: Second Lagrange Point (L2), 1.5 million km from Earth.

Mars 2020: Perseverance Rover (NASA)

·        Launch: 2020

·        Objective: Explore Mars’ geology, search for ancient life, and demonstrate new technologies (e.g., Ingenuity helicopter).

·        MOXIE: Produced oxygen on Mars for future exploration.

·        Objective: Study the Sun’s corona and solar wind.

·        Closest Approach: 3.9 million miles (6.2 million km) from the Sun over 24 orbits.

Juno (NASA)

·        Launch: August 5, 2011

·        Objective: Study Jupiter’s formation, structure, and magnetic field.

·       Launch: November 2000 (continuously occupied).

·       Agencies Involved: NASA, Roscosmos, JAXA, ESA, CSA.

·       Mission: Orbiting laboratory for scientific research and international collaboration.

Psyche Mission (NASA)

·        Launch: October 2023

·        Objective: Explore the metal-rich asteroid Psyche in the asteroid belt.

·        Target: August 2029 arrival at the asteroid.

Juice Mission (ESA)

·        Launch: 14 April 2023

·        Launch Vehicle: Ariane 5 from Europe’s Spaceport, French Guiana.

·        Objective: Detailed study of Jupiter and its icy moons (Ganymede, Callisto, Europa).

·        Focus: Explore Jupiter’s complex environment, potential habitats, and gas giants.

PLATO (ESA)

·        Objective: Study extrasolar planetary systems with an emphasis on terrestrial planets.

Clearspace-1 (ESA)

·        Objective: First mission to remove space debris from orbit.

·        Launch: 2024

·        Objective: Test supersonic flight without sonic booms using the X-59.

LOFTID (NASA)

·        Launch: November 2022

·        Objective: Test inflatable aeroshell technology for slowing spacecraft during atmospheric re-entry.

INFUSE (NASA)

·        Objective: Study 20,000-year-old Cygnus Loop supernova to understand star life cycles.

BepiColombo (ESA/JAXA)

·        Launch: October 2018, arriving at Mercury in 2025.

·        Spacecraft: Two orbiters, ESA’s Mercury Planetary Orbiter (MPO) and JAXA’s Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter (MIO).

·        Objective: Study Mercury’s surface, interior, and magnetic field.

·        Instruments: BELA, ISA, MPO-MAG, and more.

Hera (ESA)

·        Objective: Perform post-impact survey of asteroid Dimorphos.

·        Significance: First binary asteroid mission and planetary defense project.

·        Launch: 2024

·        Objective: Precise lunar landing within 100 meters using SLIM lander.

·        Mission Goal: Analyze olivine rocks and test new landing technologies.

Luna-25 (Russia, Roscosmos)

·        Launch: 2023 (Failed)

·        Objective: Explore the Moon’s south pole; mission ended in a crash.

Euclid Telescope (ESA)

·        Launch: 2023

·        Objective: Create a 3D map of the cosmos, studying dark matter and dark energy.

·        Orbit: Lagrange Point 2 (L2).

LISA (ESA)

·       Objective: First space-based gravitational wave observatory.

·        Launch: Expected in 2037.

·        Spacecraft Formation: Three spacecraft in triangular formation over 2.5 million km.

Athena (ESA)

·        Objective: Study the hot and energetic universe via an X-ray telescope.

·        Launch: Selected as ESA’s second large-class mission.

Ariel (ESA)

·        Objective: Investigate the chemical composition and thermal structures of 1,000 exoplanets.

·        Focus: First mission dedicated to surveying exoplanet atmospheres.

·        Launch: 2023

·        Objective: Meteorological satellite for climate research and atmospheric studies.

Taifa-1 (Kenya)

·        Launch: 2023 via Falcon 9 (SpaceX).

·        Objective: Kenya’s first earth observation satellite for climate monitoring and resource management.

India’s Rise in Global Space Economy

·        Market Share (2021): India holds 2% of the $386 billion global space economy.

·        Goal: Increase to $50 billion by 2025.

·        ISRO’s Role: Launched 431 satellites from 36 countries since 1999.

·        Commercial Impact: Generated $279 million in foreign exchange from satellite launches, with an additional $223 million in the pipeline.

·        2023 Highlight: Launched 11 satellites from Singapore.

Future Growth Potential

·        Projections: $100 billion growth in coming years driven by space startups, government initiatives, and commercial ventures.

·        Strategic Impact: Liberalization of the space sector and fostering of space entrepreneurship.

I.   The Role and Impact of Science & Technology: 4

Theme 2: Climatic Change

Theme 3: Floods & Urban flooding

Theme 4: Tsunamis and Cyclones

Theme 5: Manmade or Anthropogenic Disasters

·       Objective: Satellite-based distance education.

·       Working: Transmits educational content via satellite to remote areas.

2.      Tele-Education Networks:

·       Objective: Real-time interactive learning via satellite.

·       Working: Hub-and-spoke model for broadcasting educational content to remote classrooms.

3.      Virtual Classrooms:

·       Objective: Live sessions using satellite connectivity.

·       Working: Satellite-based video conferencing for interactive learning.

4.      DTH-Based Learning:

·       Objective: Broadcast educational content via DTH.

·       Working: Cost-effective educational programs broadcasted to DTH receivers.

5.      Gyandoot and Akshaya Projects:

·       Objective: Digital literacy and vocational training.

·       Working: Satellite-enabled e-learning centers for rural populations.

6.      Distance Education:

·       Objective: Partner with universities for satellite-based education.

·       Working: Broadcasted educational programs to remote areas.

·       Objective: Estimate crop acreage using satellite imagery.

·       Working: GIS-based analysis for accurate crop yield estimates.

2.       FASAL:

·       Objective: Crop yield forecasting using satellite data.

·       Working: Combines weather data and satellite imagery to predict yields.

3.       NADAMS:

·       Objective: Monitor droughts using remote sensing.

·       Working: Satellite data for drought severity assessment and relief planning.

4.       CHAMAN:

·       Objective: Geospatial tech for horticulture development.

·       Working: Satellite imagery for crop mapping and health monitoring.

5.       Precision Farming Centers (PFDCs):

·       Objective: Promote precision farming using satellite data.

·       Working: Optimized resource use for better agricultural productivity.

6.       Soil Health Monitoring:

·       Objective: Monitor soil health with satellite tech.

·       Working: Satellite sensors for soil moisture and health management.

·       Objective: Accurate satellite navigation services.

·       Working: Augments GPS for precise location information.

2.      Disaster Management Program:

·       Objective: Satellite data for disaster management.

·       Working: Monitors disasters like floods and cyclones for timely response.

3.      Bhuvan Geo-Platform:

·       Objective: Geospatial data for industries.

·       Working: Web platform providing data for infrastructure and environmental projects.

4.      Telemedicine via Satellite:

·       Objective: Remote healthcare through satellite communication.

·       Working: Connects remote health centers with specialists via satellite.

5.      Natural Resource Management:

·       Objective: Sustainable management using remote sensing.

·       Working: Monitors forests, water bodies, and minerals for resource conservation.

6.      Space-Based Internet Services:

·       Objective: Provide internet to remote areas via satellite.

·       Working: Satellite-powered high-speed internet for underserved regions.

2.      Deforestation: Reduces CO₂ absorption.

3.      Industrial Activities: Pollutants exacerbate climate change.

4.      Agriculture: Methane emissions from livestock and rice paddies.

5.      Urbanization: Increased energy demand and emissions.

·       Changing Rainfall Patterns: Leads to droughts and floods.

·       Melting Glaciers: Affects water resources and increases flood risks.

·       Sea-Level Rise: Threatens coastal areas.

·       Biodiversity Loss: Disrupts ecosystems and species.

Causes:

·       Natural: Heavy rainfall, sedimentation, cyclones, changes in river course, tsunamis.

·       Human-made: Deforestation, poor drainage, international rivers, population pressure, poor water management.

·       Ganga Region: Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar.

·       North-West Region: Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab.

·       Deccan Region: Narmada, Tapi, Mahanadi, Krishna rivers.

§  Agriculture Damage: Crops and livestock destroyed.

§  Displacement: Millions of people displaced.

·       Health Risks: Waterborne diseases like cholera, malaria.

NDMA Guidelines:

·       Structural: Reservoirs, embankments, drainage improvement.

·       Non-Structural: Floodplain zoning, floodproofing, forecasting.

Causes:

·        Natural: Heavy rainfall, cyclones, localized storms.

·        Human-made: Unplanned urbanization, poor waste management, impermeable surfaces.

·        Impacts: Severe in cities due to high population density and economic activity.

·        Notable Events: Chennai (2015), Mumbai (2005, 2017), Delhi (2024).

Causes

·       Undersea Earthquakes: Sudden tectonic shifts.

·       Volcanic Eruptions: Displacing water during eruptions.

·       Landslides: Displacement of water from falling debris.

·       Meteorite Impacts: Rare, but can generate tsunamis.

·       Propagation: High-speed wave movement across oceans.

·       Amplification: Waves grow in height near coastal areas.

·       Run-up: Waves inundate coastal areas.

Impact

·       2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami: 10,000+ deaths in India.

·       Economic Damage: Infrastructure and fishing industry heavily impacted.

·       Environmental Damage: Coastal ecosystems devastated.

·       East Coast: Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh.

·       West Coast: Gujarat, Maharashtra.

Preparedness

·       Early Warning Systems: Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), real-time monitoring.

·       Mitigation: Coastal infrastructure, natural barriers, land-use regulations.

·       Occurrence: Pre- and post-monsoon periods, 7-14 days lifespan.

Cyclone-Prone Areas

·       East Coast: West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.

·       West Coast: Gujarat, Maharashtra.

Impacts

·       Destruction of Infrastructure: Buildings, trees, power lines.

·       Flooding: Coastal regions submerged.

·       Landslides: Triggered by cyclonic rains.

·       Loss of Life: Poor warnings lead to mass casualties (Bangladesh 1991).

Preparedness

·       IMD Warnings: Doppler radar, satellite communication.

·       NDMA Guidelines: Early warning systems, cyclone shelters, structural safety.

·       Recent Cyclones: Amphan (2020), Fani (2019), Vayu (2019).

1.      Negligence: Discarding matchsticks or cigarettes carelessly.

2.      Cooking Accidents: Unattended cooking or stoves.

3.      Electrical Faults: Short circuits, poor wiring, sub-standard components.

4.      Inflammable Materials: Improper storage/transport of chemicals.

5.      Forest Fires: Human negligence (campfires, burning items).

Effects:

·       Casualties: Deaths, injuries.

·       Economic Losses: Property destruction.

·       Environmental Impact: Air, water contamination, biodiversity loss.

·       Psychological Impact: Trauma.

Management:

·       Prevention: Fire safety rules, electrical maintenance.

·       Preparedness: Fire extinguishers, fire drills.

·       Response: Evacuation, fire department alerts.

·       Recovery: Rebuilding, psychological support.

·       Causes: Speeding, Drunk Driving, Poor Vehicle Maintenance, Traffic Violations.

·       Safety Measures: Seat belts, traffic signals, vehicle maintenance, road safety education.

Rail Accidents

·       Causes: Human error, technical failures, natural events (landslides).

·       Safety Measures: Maintenance, crossing safety, advanced signaling.

Air Accidents

·       Causes: Technical failures, adverse weather, human error.

·       Safety Measures: Maintenance, crew training, weather monitoring.

Biological Disasters

Epidemics

·       Causes: Poor Sanitation, Overcrowding, Disease Vectors (insects/animals).

Management:

·       Prevention: Sanitation improvement, vaccination.

·       Surveillance: Monitoring outbreaks.

·       Response: Quarantine, medical treatment, vaccines.

·       Recovery: Health infrastructure restoration, support to affected.

·       Human Error: Inadequate training, negligence.

·       Technical Failures: Equipment malfunction, structural collapse.

·       Natural Disasters: Trigger industrial accidents.

Effects:

·       Casualties: Worker and resident fatalities.

·       Environmental Damage: Pollution (air, water, soil).

·       Economic Losses: Infrastructure damage, productivity loss.

Management:

·       Prevention: Safety protocols, equipment maintenance.

·       Preparedness: Emergency response plans, drills.

·       Response: Evacuation, hazardous material containment, medical aid.

·       Recovery: Environmental cleanup, infrastructure rebuilding, compensation.

·       Awareness & Education: Community disaster education.

·       Disaster Management Plans: Local, school plans.

·       Resource Inventory: Material/human resources.

Response:

·       Emergency Operations Centers, Search & Rescue, Shelters.

Recovery:

·       Reconstruction, Health Programs, Economic Support.

Prevention:

·       Land Use Planning, Disaster-Resistant Buildings, Risk Reduction.

Government Initiatives on Disaster Management

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

·       Role: Policy formulation, disaster plans.

·       Functions: Response coordination, training, research.

State & District Plans

·       Development: State/district disaster plans.

·       Implementation: Drills, capacity-building.

Community Participation

·       Involvement: Community disaster activities.

·       Training: First aid, rescue skills

I.   The Role and Impact of Science & Technology: 5

·        Essential – cooking, lighting, transportation & industrial processes.

·        Derived – both conventional & non-conventional sources.

Rural Energy Needs in India

·        Over 70% of energy – rural India is met – firewood & cattle dung cake.

·        Sustainability concerns -deforestation and depletion of valuable manure resources

·        Conventional sources- non-renewable & have been used extensively over time.

·        Examples – coal, petroleum, natural gas, and electricity.

Global Reliance on Fossil Fuels

·        Fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal) – more than 85% of global energy.

·        Present challenges – Environmental damage, resource depletion, & lack of sustainability.

Challenges with Conventional Sources

·        Increasing difficulty – discovering and exploiting new deposits.

·        Environmental concerns & unsustainable nature of continued reliance on fossil fuels.

·        Definition: Continuously replenished, pollution-free, clean energy sources with no waste.

Types of Non-Conventional Energy:

·        Solar Energy: Generated – sunlight via photovoltaic cells.

·        Wind Energy: Harnesses – kinetic energy – moving air.

·        Hydroelectric Power: Produced – flowing water.

·        Geothermal Energy: Uses Earth’s internal heat.

·        Biomass Energy: Derived – organic materials like plants.

·        Exists in forms – peat, lignite, bituminous (used commercially), & anthracite (highest quality).

·        India’s Gondwana coal (200 million years old) – found in the Damodar Valley, Jharia, Raniganj, and Bokaro.

·        Tertiary coal reserves – Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and Nagaland.

·        Proximity to coalfields – vital for heavy industries & thermal power stations.

Coal-Based Thermal Power Plant

·        Generates electricity – burning coal – produce heat, converting water – steam.

·        Steam drives turbines connected to generators.

·        Steam is condensed back into water using cooling systems, completing the cycle.

·        Major reserves – Mumbai High, west coast, and Krishna-Godavari basin.

·        The Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ) pipeline connects these fields to industrial complexes across India.

Conventional vs. Unconventional Natural Gas

·        Conventional Gas: Accessible, found under permeable rock layers- oil.

·        Unconventional Gas: Harder to extract, – shale gas, tight gas, coalbed methane, and methane hydrates.

·        Land Use: Habitat fragmentation and deforestation.

·        Induced Seismicity: Human-induced earthquakes – wastewater disposal.

·        Water Usage: High water consumption – fracking.

·        Community Concerns: Disruptions, health effects, and economic dependency.

·        Regulatory Challenges: Need for strong regulatory frameworks.

·        Methane Emissions: Methane leakage contributes – global warming.

·        Waste Management: Challenges in treating wastewater generated during extraction.Top of FormBottom of Form

·        India’s petroleum reserves are found – anticlines and fault traps – tertiary rock formations.

·        Major production areas -Mumbai High, Gujarat (Ankeleshwar), and Assam (Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran-Hugrijan).

Extraction Methods

·        Vertical Drilling: Traditional method for close-to-surface gas.

·        Horizontal Drilling: Flexible, cost-effective, allows for fewer drilling sites.

·        Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking): High-pressure water, sand, and chemicals break rocks to release gas; controversial due to environmental concerns.

·        Acidizing: Dissolves rocks blocking gas flow, often used with fracking.

Nuclear energy – released – atom’s nucleus, – protons and neutrons.

·       Produced – two processes: fission (splitting of atomic nuclei) and fusion (combining of nuclei).

·        Radioactive Elements: Unstable isotopes – emit radiation through radioactive decay (e.g., uranium, thorium, radium).

·        Radioactivity: Discovered – Henri Becquerel & Marie Curie – alpha, beta, and gamma decay processes.

·        Radiation Facilities: Applications – industry, medicine, and research, including radiation processing and diagnostic/therapeutic uses.

Nuclear Energy Production

Nuclear Reactors: Use uranium & thorium for generating electric power.

Key Components:

·       Fuel: Uranium-235, chosen for its ability to undergo fission.

·       Control Rods: Regulate -nuclear reaction.

·       Coolant: Absorbs heat generated – nuclear reaction, typically water.

·       Turbine and Generator: Convert steam from heated water into electrical energy.

Stage 1: Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PWHR)

·       Uses natural uranium – produce electricity & plutonium-239 as a byproduct.

·       Heavy Water acts – both coolant and moderator.

Stage 2: Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs)

·       Utilizes plutonium-239 to create more fuel, including uranium-233 from thorium.

·       Liquid sodium is used as the coolant.

Stage 3: Advanced Nuclear Systems

·       Focuses – utilizing thorium+ Uranium-233 – sustainable nuclear fuel cycles.

·       Research – developing technologies like Indian Molten Salt Breeder Reactor (IMSBR) & Innovative High-Temperature Reactor (IHTR).

·       Uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL): Manages uranium mining and processing.

·       Indian Rare Earths Limited (IREL): Separates heavy minerals – uranium from beach sands.

·       Nuclear Fuel Fabrication Facilities: Located – Hyderabad, Tamil Nadu, and Rajasthan, convert uranium ore into fuel assemblies for reactors.

·       Heavy Water Board (HWB): Produces heavy water and various chemicals for DAE units.

·       Liquid Waste: Treated and discharged within regulatory limits.

·       Gaseous Waste: Released – high stacks after treatment and monitoring.

·       Closed Fuel Cycle: Involves reprocessing and recycling spent fuel, with minimal high-level waste requiring geological disposal.

Nuclear Diplomacy

·       No-First-Use (NFU) Policy: India pledges not to use nuclear weapons first but will respond if attacked.

·       Global Non-Proliferation and Strategic Autonomy: India supports global non-proliferation while maintaining strategic independence.

·       Bilateral Agreements: India engages in civil nuclear cooperation, including the Indo-U.S. Civil Nuclear Agreement.

·       Engagement with International Organizations: Active participation in IAEA and other forums for nuclear safety and security.

·       Disarmament Initiatives: Advocates for global nuclear disarmament and supports the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT).

·       Energy Security and Regional Stability: India secures nuclear technology for energy needs and aims to contribute to regional stability through nuclear diplomacyTop of FormBottom of Form.

·        Photovoltaic technology -converts – sunlight – directly – electricity.

·        Solar energy – increasingly popular – rural & remote areas.

·        Large solar power plants -India reduce reliance on firewood and dung cakes, aiding environmental conservation and providing manure for agriculture.

Government Initiatives:

·       Import Duty: 40% duty on imported solar modules to promote domestic manufacturing.

·       PLI Scheme: Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme to enhance manufacturing and exports in the solar sector.

·       BIS Certification: Mandatory BIS certification for quality benchmarks in domestic manufacturing.

·       ALMM: Approved List of Models and Manufacturers ensures reliable solar PV manufacturers.

·       Converts light (photons) – electricity (voltage) – photovoltaic effect.

Silicon Solar Cells:

• Dominant -today’s market – reasonable cost & good efficiency.
• Assembled -modules – (residential, commercial, or utility-scale systems).

Thin-Film Solar Cells:

• Made – thin layers of semiconductor materials – cadmium telluride.
• Lightweight, flexible, and ideal for portable applications or integrated products like solar windows.
• Less energy-intensive manufacturing than silicon cells.

III-V Solar Cells:

• Made from Group III and V elements (e.g., gallium, indium, arsenic).
• High efficiency but expensive, used – satellites & unmanned aerial vehicles.

Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cells:

• Combine layers of crystalline & amorphous silicon for higher efficiency.
• Each layer captures different light wavelengths.

Bio-Solar Cells:

• Combine biology and solar technology, using photosynthesis to generate electricity.
• Environmentally friendly but currently less efficient and complex to develop.

Perovskite Solar Cells:

• Utilize materials with a perovskite crystal structure, like methylammonium lead iodide.
• High efficiency (over 25%) with flexible, cost-effective manufacturing.
• Challenges include stability, toxicity, and scalability for mass production.

·       Mission approved – 11th Jan 2010, aimed – developing solar energy technologies.

·       Initial target: Deploying 20,000 MW of grid-connected solar power by 2022.

·       Revised target in June 2015: 1,00,000 MW by 2022.

India’s Solar Mission Targets by 2030:

·       India aims – add 350 GW of renewable energy by 2030, – solar power contributing 55% of the total installed capacity.

Challenges:

·       Dependency on Imports: Heavy reliance – imports – key solar components, causing – capital outflows.

·       Cost of Ownership: Rising costs & GST rates impacting the residential rooftop segment, slowing installations.

·       DISCOM Ecosystem: Challenges in the existing DISCOM system affecting cost competitiveness in the shift to solar.

Solar Companies’ Contribution:

·       Research & Development: Investment in R&D for efficient solar technologies like shark bifacial panels.

·       Energy Storage Trends: Growing focus on energy storage solutions like lithium batteries for high energy consumption periods.

·       Loom Solar’s Initiative: Introduced “The Solar Entrepreneur” franchise model to encourage new entrepreneurs in the solar market.

·        Hydroelectric Power: India – several multi-purpose hydroelectric projects – Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley Corporation, and the Kopili Hydel Project.

2.      Dams or Turbines: Structures – dams or turbines capture water energy.

3.      Electricity Generation: Flowing water spins turbines, which power generators to produce electricity.

·       Micro: Up to 100 KW

·       Mini: 101 KW to 2 MW

·       Small: 2 MW to 25 MW

·       Mega: ≥ 500 MW – hydro projects, ≥ 1500 MW – thermal projects

·       Responsibility:

o   Ministry of Power – large hydro projects

o   Ministry of New and Renewable Energy – small hydro projects (up to 25 MW).

·        Renewable: Constant flow of water – sustainable energy source.

·        Reliable: More consistent than solar or wind energy.

·        Clean: No pollution during electricity generation.

Cons:

·        Environmental Impact: Dams can disrupt ecosystems and displace communities.

·        Location-Specific: Suitable only in regions with adequate water flow.

·        High Initial Costs: Building infrastructure like dams and power plants is expensive.Top of FormBottom of Form

·        Notable Wind Energy Sites: Nagarcoil & Jaisalmer – prominent for effective wind energy utilization.

·       Blade Movement: Wind causes the turbine blades to spin, like a pinwheel.

·       Electricity Generation: The spinning blades turn a generator, producing electricity.

2.      Clean Energy: Produces no pollution during electricity generation.

3.      Reduces Greenhouse Gases: Helps combat climate change by lowering emissions.

2.      Space and Aesthetics: Wind farms – large areas – visually unappealing to some.

3.      High Initial Costs: Setting up wind farms can be expensive, though costs are decreasing.

·       Higher Efficiency: Biogas has higher thermal efficiency compared to kerosene, dung cake, and charcoal.

·       Types of Plants: Municipal, cooperative, and individual levels; cattle dung-based biogas plants are called “Gobar gas plants” in rural India.

·       Benefits: Provides energy and improved manure quality, reducing the use of fuel wood and dung cakes.

Advantages of CBG Production:

1.      Reduces import of natural gas and crude.

2.      Utilizes agricultural residue and reduces emissions.

3.      Contributes to climate goals, energy security, and rural economy improvement.

Biogas Generation Process:

·        Involves hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis reactions.

·       Department: Dept of Drinking Water and Sanitation (DDWS), Ministry of Jal Shakti.

·       Key Schemes: SATAT, Agri Infrastructure Fund, Waste to Energy, SBM(G) Phase II.

·       Eligibility: Projects producing -10 cubic meters of CBG/biogas daily, – households, cooperatives, and entrepreneurs.

·       Benefits: Supports India’s net-zero emissions by 2070, creates rural jobs, improves village hygiene, and aligns with SDGs (3, 6, 7, 13).

·       Implementation: Focuses – villages with high cattle populations, promotes community-managed biogas plants, and provides funding for infrastructure.

Launched: Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas – Oct 1, 2018.

Goals:

·       Reduce air pollution, (esp from stubble burning & carbon emissions).

·       Improve farmers’ income and create rural employment opportunities.

·       Reduce dependency on crude oil imports.

·       Support efficient municipal solid waste management.

·       Promote organic farming.

Target: Set up 5,000 CBG plants by 2025.

Process: Involves submitting EOIs, obtaining LOIs, selecting retail outlets, and selling CBG.

·       Gulf of Khambhat

·       Gulf of Kuchchh (Gujarat)

·       Gangetic delta (West Bengal).

2.      Tidal power plants use turbines or tidal stream generators.

3.      Tidal movement drives turbines, generating electricity.

·       Predictable: Tides follow a known pattern.

·       Low Environmental Impact: Minimal pollution.

·       High Initial Costs: Expensive infrastructure.

·       Potential in India: Hot springs – India (e.g., Parvati Valley and Puga Valley) could be used for power generation.

2.      Geothermal power plants drill into the Earth’s crust to access hot water or steam.

3.      Steam turns turbines, generating electricity.

·       Reliable: Available 24/7.

·       Low Emissions: Low greenhouse gas emissions.

·       Drilling Costs: Expensive to access deep heat sources.

Benefits

·       Clean energy: Only byproduct is water.

·       Continuous operation with fuel supply.

·       High efficiency compared to combustion engines.

·       Cathode: Where oxygen is introduced.

·       Electrolyte: Allows ion movement between anode and cathode.

·       Electrons create electric current.

·       Oxygen reacts with protons and electrons, forming water as a byproduct.

·       Stationary power (backup power for buildings).

·       Portable power (electronic devices).

·        Black/Brown Hydrogen: Made – coal, highly polluting.

·        Blue Hydrogen: Steam reforming – carbon capture and storage (CCS).

·        Green Hydrogen: Clean hydrogen produced- electrolysis – renewable energy.

·        Pink Hydrogen: Electrolysis powered – nuclear energy.

·        Yellow Hydrogen: Produced – electrolysis using solar energy.

·       Incentives: ₹17,490 crore up to 2029-30 for manufacturing electrolysers and green hydrogen production.

·       Public-Private R&D Partnership: Strategic Hydrogen Innovation Partnership (SHIP)- support innovation in green hydrogen technologies.

Outcomes:

o   5 MMT of green hydrogen production by 2030.

o   60-100 GW of electrolyzer installations.

o   Creation of 6 lakh new green jobs.

o   125 GW renewable energy dedicated – green hydrogen production.

o   50 MMT of carbon abatement cumulatively.

o   Over ₹8 lakh crore of investments.

·        Cost-effective: Aloe Vera – an economical raw material, making – batteries affordable – longer lifespan.

·        Applications: Compatible -devices- AA-size batteries, such as remote controls, portable audio players, flashlights, and household electronics.

·        Aligned with Mission LiFE: Collaboration- Aloe Ecell Pvt. Ltd. supports sustainable practices.

·       Process: Electrons from microbial metabolism flow to an electrode, generating electric current.

·       Applications: Wastewater treatment, bioenergy production, environmental remediation.

Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles (FAME)

·       FAME I (2015-2019): Encouraged EV adoption – INR 795 crore outlay, incentivized 2.78 lakh EVs, sanctioned 465 e-buses.

·       FAME II (2019-2024): Allocated INR 10,000 crore – EV adoption and charging infrastructure; focuses on commercial EVs and e-buses.

·       How it works: Lithium ions move between electrodes during charge/discharge.

·       Applications: Consumer electronics, electric vehicles, renewable energy storage, medical devices, aerospace, and smart grids.

Waste-to-Energy Plants

·       Incineration of waste: Converts waste to electricity or heat, reducing landfill volume and generating base-load power.

·       Challenges: Environmental concerns and public perception of waste incineration

·       Advantages: Processes waste without segregation, high moisture tolerance, and zero-discharge process.

Biomass Gasification

·       Thermochemical conversion – organic materials into energy vectors like electricity, biofuels, hydrogen, and syngas.

·       Advantages: Converts waste to energy, mitigates stubble burning, reduces landfill dependence.

·       Challenges: Feedstock variability, local availability, and technical issues like tar formation.

·       Objective: Launched – 2019 to install 30,000 MW of solar power capacity – rural India by 2026.

·       Components:

o   10,000 MW – decentralized grid-connected renewable power plants.

o   20 lakh solar-powered agriculture pumps.

o   Conversion of 15 lakh grid-connected agriculture pumps to solar.

·       Significance: Enhances energy access, climate mitigation, reduces carbon emissions, and provides employment.

·       Challenges: High setup costs, depleting water tables, and regulatory barriers.

·       Way Forward: Consensus between stakeholders and adoption of water-conserving methods like drip irrigation.

Key Features:

·       Free metered connections for economically poor households.

·       On-spot registration and mobile app for quick access.

·       SPV-based standalone systems for remote areas.

Achievements: Major contribution – household electrification and village electrification.

Smart Meter National Programme (SMNP)

·       Obj: Replace 250 million conventional meters with smart meters.

·       Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI): Includes smart meters, communication networks, and data management systems.

·       Benefits:

o   Operational: Improved meter accuracy, theft detection, and quicker restoration during outages.

o   Financial: Reduced costs and streamlined billing.

o   Customer: Faster service restoration and flexible billing options.

·       Challenges: High capital costs, integration complexities, and need for standardization.

·        How it Works: Consumers – billed based – net electricity consumption (consumed minus produced).

·        Benefits:

o   Economic savings – reduced electricity bills.

o   Environmental impact – promoting renewable energy use.

o   Grid support – reducing peak demand.

·        Challenges: Varying regional policies, infrastructure compatibility, and credit mechanisms.

Green Energy Corridor (GEC)

·       Objective: Synchronize renewable energy – conventional power grid & support the 450 GW renewable energy target by 2030.

·       Phases:

·       GEC-1: Ongoing in several states to integrate 24 GW of renewable energy.

·       GEC-2: Planned for 7 states to integrate 20 GW by 2025-26.

Significance: Reduces carbon footprint, strengthens energy security, and generates jobs.

·       Key Areas: Solar energy – agriculture, health, transport, and power sectors.

·       Launch: Initiated – India & France – 2015.

·       Focus of Sixth Assembly (2023): Energy access – mini-grids, mobilizing finance for solar, and diversifying supply chains.

World Solar Technology Report 2023

·       Crystalline Silicon: 98% market share, 56.4% renewable energy by 2050.

·       Emerging Tech: Monocrystalline, organic PV, perovskite PV.

World Solar Market Report 2023

·       Market Shift: Asia-Pacific leadership, 37% CAGR.

·       Expansion: Solar market growth, regional adoption dynamics.

World Solar Investment Report 2023

·       Investment Surge: $300 billion in 2022, 36% increase.

·       Top Regions: Asia Pacific, Europe, North America, China, Germany, USA.

·       Future Focus: Grid infrastructure, storage, supply chain, emerging markets.

One Sun, One World, One Grid (OSOWOG)

·       Obj: Connect global energy grids to share renewable energy, (esp solar).

·       Vision: A global grid where “the sun never sets” to maximize renewable energy use.

·       Launch: Introduced – India – ISA Assembly – 2018 & supported by the UK at COP26 (2021).