Telangana History SPMB

Theme 2: Ikshvakus

Theme 3: Vishnukundins

Theme 4: Rise and growth of Jainism and Buddhism

·        Aitareya Brahmana: Earliest reference – &hras, mentions -m along with Pulindas, Sabaras, Pundras, -Mutibas as tribes.

·        Mahabharata: Mentions Kauravas gaining support from &hras.

·        Puranas (Matsya, Vayu): Provide lists – Satavahana kings, called ‘&hrabhrityas’ (30 kings in Matsya Purana).

·        Jain -Buddhist Literature: Early Jain sutras -Buddhist works (Jatakas, Pitakas, Mahavastu) reference – &hras.

·        Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram: Mentions Satavahana kings.

·        Somadeva’s Kathasaritsagara: References Satavahana period.

·        Bana’s Harsha Charitra: Provides accounts – – Satavahana kings.

·        Hala’s Gathasaptasati: A Satavahana king’s poetic work, gives socio-cultural insights.

·        Gunadhya’s Brihatkatha: Important literary work – – Satavahana period.

·        Kutuhala’s Lilavathi: Provides cultural context – – era.

·        Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra: Useful – underst&ing social cus-ms.

·        Acharya Nagarjuna: Mahayana philosopher -contemporary – Yagnasri Satakarni, wrote Prajnaparamitha, Suhrulleka, –Rasaratnakara with valuable insights on – later Satavahanas.

-eign Sources:

·        Megas-nes’ Indica: Describes &hras as a powerful people with 30 walled -wns, emphasizing -ir military strength.

·        Pliny: Confirms Megas-nes’ account – &hra power.

·        Arrain: Refers – &hras divided in- tribal kingdoms.

·        Periplus – Erythrean Sea: Describes conflicts between Sakas -Satavahanas over maritime trade supremacy.

·       Satavahana Rule: Ruled – 250 years (1st Century BCE – 225 CE), divided in- Early Satavahanas (up – Gautamiputra Satakarni) –Later Satavahanas (after Gautamiputra Satakarni).

1.      Simuka (Srimukha):

·       Founder – – Satavahana dynasty.

·       Killed Susarman (Kanva ruler), established – dynasty.

·       Capitals: Dhanakataka, Pratishthanapura, Kotilingala.

·       Mentioned in Naneghat inscription, Kotilingala coins.

·       Patronized Jainism, later shifted – Brahmanism (Vedic religion).

2.      Kanha (Krishna):

·       Younger bro-r – Simuka.

·       First Satavahana ruler – issue inscriptions (Nasik cave).

·       Patron – Buddhism; built caves – Buddhist monks.

·       Spread Bhagavatha religion from North India – Deccan.

3.      Satakarni-I:

·       Son – Simuka, married Naganika (Maharathi Tranakayiro’s daughter).

·       Exp&ed kingdom – Malwa, Narmada Valley, Vidarbha.

·       Per-med two Ashwamedha sacrifices –Rajasuya Yagam.

·       Mentioned in Naneghat inscription, ruled – 18 years.

4.      Satakarni-II:

·       Ruled – 56 years.

·       Extended kingdom – Ganges; defeated Sakas in Kalinga.

·       Conquered Pataliputra, coins found in Telangana, Maharashtra, Malwa, -Madhya Pradesh.

·       Saka-Satavahana conflict began during his rule.

5.      Pulomavi-I:

·       Continued Satavahana legacy.

·       Invaded Pataliputra, first South Indian king – do so.

6.      Kuntala Satakarni:

·       Replaced Prakrit with Sanskrit as – -ficial language.

·       Mentioned in Kavya Mimamsa – Rajasekhara –Kamasutra – Vatsayana.

·       Patronized Gunadhya (Brihatkatha) –Sarvavarma (Katantra Vyakarana).

7.      Hala:

·       17th ruler, composed Gathasapthasati in Prakrit.

·       Patron – poets, known as Kavivatsala.

·       Love s-ry with Lilavati described in Lilavati by Kutuhala.

·        Nasik Prasasti by mo-r Gautami Balasri records his achievements.

·        Exp&ed empire: Conquered Assaka (Telangana), Asika, Mulaka (Aurangabad), Vidarbha (Berar).

·        Defeated Saka ruler Nahapana (Kshaharata family), restruck Nahapana’s coins at Jogalthambi.

·        Conquered regions: Anupa, Aparantha, Saurashtra, Kukura, Avanti.

·        Empire exp&ed from Rajasthan (North India) – Vyjayanthi (Karnataka) –Kadalur (Tamil Nadu).

·        Title: Trisamudra -ya Peetha Vahana (one whose horses drank – water – – three oceans), indicating conquests – – Bay – Bengal, Arabian Sea, –Indian Ocean.

·        Described as Kshaharata Vamsa Nirmulaka (destroyer – – Kshaharata family).

·        Per-med Ashvamedha –Rajasuya sacrifices.

·        Upheld Vedic dharma; referred – as Agama Nilaya, Ekabrahmana.

·        Known as a protec-r – Varnasramadharma, ensuring peace, prosperity, -righteousness.

·        Compared – epic heroes like Rama, Arjuna, Bhima, Nahusa, Yayati.

·        Titles include Satavahanakula Yasa Puthapanakara, Ekabrahmana, Agama Nilaya, Kshatriya Darpamana.

Pulomavi-II (130-154 C.E.)

·        Successor – Gautamiputra Satakarni; ruled – 24 years.

·        Also known as Vasisthiputra Pulomavi.

·        Inscriptions: Nasik, Karle, Amaravati, Dharanikota.

·        Title: Dakshinapathapati (Lord – – Deccan), vast kingdom.

·        Faced Saka chieftain Chastana, conflict at Ujjain.

·        Shifted capital from Prathisthana – Dhanyakataka (Amaravati).

·        Decline – Satavahana power began during his reign.

·        Successor: Sivasri Satakarni, defeated twice by Rudradaman (Junagarh inscription).

·        26th ruler, last great Satavahana king.

·        Exploited civil war between Jivadama –Rudradama (Sakas).

·        Invaded Ujjain; controlled western -central Deccan.

·        Coins found with his image; issued silver coins with a two-mast ship (indicating trade -navigation).

·        Patronized Buddhism –Acharya Nagarjuna.

·        Built a mahachaitya at Sriparvata (Nagarjunakonda) – Nagarjuna.

·        His reign ended in 194 C.E..

Decline – Satavahanas

·        After Yagnasri, Vijaya Satakarni, Ch&asri, –Pulomavi IV ruled – 17 years.

·        – Satavahana dynasty ended in – early 3rd century A.D.

·        Replaced by Chutus (western Deccan), Abhiras (Nasik), –Ikshvakus (Telangana-&hra regions).

·        Satavahana coins, inscriptions, -literature provide key insights.

Monarchical System:

·        Kings had supreme authority; succession – hereditary.

·        Titles: Raja, Maharaja.

·        King’s advisory council led by Visvasa Amatya (Chief Minister).

Key -officials:

·        Rajamatyas: Advisory body members.

·        Mahamatras: Department heads.

·        Bh&agarika: Superintendent – stores.

·        Heranika: Treasurer.

·        Mahasenapati: Comm&er – -ces.

·        Mahataraka: Chamberlain.

·        Nib&hakara: In-charge – state records.

·        Special -ficials: Prathiharas (Messengers), Ganapaka (Accountant), Lekhaka (Document Registrar), Pattikapalaka (Director – Archives), –Uparakshita (Builder – caves).

Provincial Administration:

·        Empire divided – Aharas (provinces).

·        Notable provinces: Govardhana (Nasik), Sopara, Mamala (Pune).

·        Governed by amatyas or princes – royal blood, aided by maharathis –mahabhojas.

·        Princes were transferred frequently as per Nasik inscription.

Village Administration:

·        Villages: Managed by gramani or gramika (village head).

·        Autonomy in village -town management.

·        Nigama Sabha (town assembly) managed cities like Sopara, Broach, Kanheri, Paithan, –Kotilingala.

Taxation System:

·        L-revenue – – chief source; 1/6th – produce collected as Rajabhoga.

·        O-r taxes: Roads, ports, pr-essions, markets, mines.

Military Organization:

·        Army composed – foot soldiers, cavalry, elephants.

·        Efficient military –judicial systems.

Judicial System:

·        King: Supreme judicial authority, respected legal experts’ recommendations.

·        Civil –criminal cases h&led separately.

Tours -Public Interaction:

·        Kings conducted royal tours to gauge public sentiment -improve administration.

Matriarchal Traces:

·        Some kings bore metronymic names, but society followed patriarchy.

·       Gathasaptasati (Hala), Brihatkatha (Gunadhya), Lilavati (Kutuhala).

·       Sculptures from Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, -Nagarjunakonda.

Caste System:

·       Brahmins: Honored, per-med rituals, held administrative roles.

·       Kshatriyas: Governed – state.

·       Vaisyas: Mercantile -maritime activities.

·       Sudras: Agriculture -crafts.

Crafts:

·        Mentioned crafts include Halika (agriculturist), Gadhika (perfume makers), Kolikas (weavers), Tilapisaka (gingerly oil extraction), Kamara (blacksmith), Kularika (potters), Udayantrika (irrigation experts), Dhannuka (grain merchants), Vasakara (bamboo workers).

Family Structure:

·        Joint family system, eldest male as Gruhapati.

·        Patriarchal society, though women had some independence, like in l-donations.

Women’s Role:

Metronymic names (Gautamiputra, Vasisthiputra) signify women’s importance.

·        Women like Naganika -Gautamiputra Satakarni’s mo-r participated in administration.

·        Women involved in cultural activities, l-donations (e.g., inscriptions from Amaravathi -Nasik).

Intercaste & Foreign Marriages:

·        Intercaste marriages -marriages with -eigners accepted.

·        Satavahana rulers had alliances with – Sakas.

Dress -Ornaments:

·        Men: Loincloth, head dress – twisted cloth.

·        Women: Twisted cloth worn below – waist, adorned with anklets, earrings, bangles, necklaces.

·        Depictions from Amaravati rails –Karle Chaitya.

Food -Lifestyle:

·        Staple food: Wheat, rice, millets.

·        Life – simple, especially in villages.

Music -Entertainment:

·        Music instruments: Veena, Mridangam, Venu, Pataha, Sankha.

·        Dice-playing, bullock competitions, cockfights were popular pastimes.

Satavahana society:

·        Progressive, allowing women’s participation, intercaste marriages, foreign alliances.

·        Lifestyle – simple but culturally rich, with music, dance, –festivities being integral to -their lives.

·        Backbone – Satavahana economy.

·        L-revenue: Chief source, with two taxes: Rajabhoga –Deyameya.

·        1/6th – produce collected as revenue.

·        L-grants to Brahmins -needy people were encouraged.

·        King’s private l&: Rajakheta.

·        Odayantrakas (guild – wage workers/water machines) used – irrigation.

Industries -Guilds:

·        Various guilds (Sreni) -med, like:

·        Kularikas (potters)

·        Odayantrikas (makers – hydraulic engines)

·        Tilapisakas (oil pressers)

·        Dhannikas (corn dealers)

·        Kolikas (weavers)

·        Vasakaras (bamboo workers)

·        Head – each guild: Sresti.

·        Guilds promoted trade, provided banking facilities, -h&led cash deposits -l-endowments.

Trade:

Internal trade: Important centres: Paithan, Tagara, Junnar, Nasik, Amaravati, Vijayapura, Kudura, Dhanyakataka, Dhulikatta, Peddabankur, Kondapur, Kotilingala.

External trade: Maintained with – Roman Empire.

·        Exports: Muslin, spices, medicinal herbs.

·        Imports: Wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, gold, silver.

·        Balance – trade: In favor – India.

Ports:

·       West coast: Barukachcha (most important), Sopara, Kalyan.

·       East coast: Ghantasala, Guduru, Arikamedu.

Transport -Currency:

·       Caravans –river boats were – main means – transport.

·       Barter system – common.

·       Coins: Lead, potin, copper, silver.

·       Silver coin: Karshapana.

·       Gold coin: Suvarna.

Mining:

·       Gold – mined freely in – Satavahana kingdom.

·       Commercial relations with Sou-ast Asia led to – spread – Buddhism.

Art and Architecture:

·        Deccan Architecture: Divided – rock-cut (Western Deccan) and brick-built (Eastern Deccan) structures.

·        Buddhist Monuments: Focus on stupas, viharas, and chaityas.

·        Karle Chaitya: Most famous rock-cut monument.

·        Amaravati Stupa: Largest stupa in South India, known for marble construction and Buddhist sculptures.

·        Amaravati School of Art: Important Indian art style.

·        Sculptures: Depict Buddha’s life and Jataka tales.

·        Ajanta Paintings: Notable examples of Satavahana painting, found in caves 9 and 10, known for mastery in human anatomy and composition.

·       Prakrit –Sanskrit were – main languages.

·       Gunadhya wrote Brihatkatha in Paisachi Prakrit (heroic adventures).

·       Hala compiled Gathasaptasati (700 verses on rural life).

·       Kuntahala wrote Lilavati-Parinaya (Hala’s marriage).

·       Sarvavarman authored Katantra (Sanskrit grammar).

·       Sanskrit gained prominence in later Satavahana period (e.g., Junagarh inscription).

·       Acharya Nagarjuna wrote Pragnaparamita Sastra, Madhyamika Sutra, –Ratnavali in Sanskrit.

·       Nagarjuna – a contemporary – Yagnasri Satakarni.

Religious Conditions

Vedic Religion:

·       Practiced by Satavahanas.

·       Nanaghat inscription mentions Indra, Agni, Varuna.

·       Hala’s Gatha Saptashati starts with a prayer to Shiva.

Shaivism:

·       Pashupata Shaivism – – first sect – Shaivism, founded by Lakulisa.

·       Worshipped Pashupati; emphasized peace over sacrifices.

·       Gudimallam Shiva Lingam (2nd Century B.C.) in Chittoor – worshipped by Satavahanas.

Jainism:

·       Digambara Jainism dominated in &hra.

·       Kalpa Pradeepa mentions 52 army chiefs – Satavahanas who built Jain temples.

·       Ashoka’s gr&son Samprati helped spread Jainism.

·       – 10th Jain Tirthankara Sheetalanatha – born in Bhadrachalam (Khammam).

·       Sri Mukha initially patronized Jainism.

·       Kondakundacharya promoted Shadvadam & Anekantha Vadham.

Buddhism:

·       Buddhism spread in &hra & Telangana during Gautama Buddha’s lifetime.

·       Buddha visited Amaravati & gave preachings.

·       Satavahana kings followed Vedic religion, but -ir queens, like Gautami Balasree, patronized Buddhism.

·       Gautami Balasree donated Nasik caves to Badranaya Buddhism.

·       Chaityaka Vadham sect – Buddhism started in &hra, founded by Mahadeva Bikshuvu.

·       Prominent Buddhist philosopher: Acharya Nagarjuna.

Founder:

·       Chamtamula, a chieftain & feudatory of – Satavahanas, founded – Ikshvaku dynasty.

·       Sovereignty Claim: With – decline of – Satavahanas, Chamtamula established himself as a sovereign ruler.

·       Ashwamedh Yagya: Performed – Ashwamedh Yagya, a royal Brahminical ritual symbolizing his legitimacy as king.

·       Dynastic Name: Adopted – name Ikshvaku to associate with – mythological hero Rama of Ayodhya.

Post-Satavahana Rule:

·       Ikshvakus ruled Telangana after Satavahanas’ fall (220 CE).

·       Capital: Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda).

·       Sri Santamula I (220-233 CE): Performed Ashvamedha & Vajapeya sacrifices; key marriage alliances with Satavahana commanders.

·       Madhariputra Virapurushadatta (233-253 CE): Key ruler; Buddhism patron; marriage alliances with Sakas & Chutus.

·       Ehuvala Santamula II (253-277 CE): Supported Vedic religion & defeated Pallavas.

·       Rudrapurushadatta (283-301 CE): Built memorial pillar for mo-r.

·       End of Ikshvaku Rule: Overthrown by Pallavas by – end of – 3rd century CE.

·       Followed Satavahana system with modifications; divided kingdom – states (mentioned in Alluri & Amaravati inscriptions).

·       Village Structure: Group of 5 villages called Gram Panchak; village head known as Talavara.

Economic Conditions

Main Occupation: Agriculture.

·       Land Tax: Main source of income; Bhaga (1/6th of crop yield); Dheya Hiranya (money tax), Meya (produce tax).

·       Port City: Ghantasala – – major port city.

·       Artisans & Guilds: Artisans formed Shrenis (guilds). Examples: Pusika Shreni (sweets), Parnika Shreni (betel leaves).

·       Trade: Peak trade with Roman Empire; Roman gold coins found at Nagarjunakonda & Jaggaiah Peta.

·       Trade Unions: Known as Negimas.

·       Economic Transition: Post-Satavahanas, focus shifted to village self-sufficiency, decline in urban living.

Religion: Official religion – Shaivism, but Buddhism also supported.

·       Veera Purusha Datta: Key ruler promoting Buddhism in Andhra.

·       Adavi Shanta Sri: Donated Buddhist monasteries at Nagarjunakonda.

Buddhist Centers:

·       Amaravati: Center for Purva Shaili.

Nagarjunakonda: Center for Apara Shaili.

·       Buddhist Scriptures: Nikayas read as Mantras for – first time; Consecration Pillars in stupas.

Excavations (2015): Found vessel – Phanigiri & four-headed Buddha statue in Karimnagar.

Aryadeva: Wrote “Chitta Suddhi Prakaranam”, disciple of Acharya Nagarjuna.

 Language: Development – Sanskrit; Prakrit – court language.

Notable Buddhists

BuddhaGhosa (5th Century):

·       Preached Hinayana Buddhism.

·       Resided at Sinhala Vihara in NagarjunaKonda.

·       Wrote commentaries on Tripitakas known as Vibasha or Visuddimaga.

BuddhaPalita

·       Founder of Prasangika Madhyamika School of Buddhism.

Maitreya Natha:

·       Initiated – Yogacara school of Buddhism.

Dignaga (5th Century):

·       Known as – “Fa-r of Logic in India”.

·       Authored Pramana Samuchchaya, Nyaya Pravesha, & Hethu Chakra Damaru.

Dharma keerti

·       Called – “Kant of India”.

·       His works include Pramana Vartika, Nyaya Bindu, & Hetu Bindu.

·       Nagarjunakonda: Main center for Amaravati School of Art, focus on Mahayana Buddhism in architecture.

·       Sati Practice: First depicted in Amaravati Sculptures.

·       Mandhata Sculpture: Important artwork from Jaggaiahpet, revealed pictures of kings for – first time.

·       Sculptors & Inscriptions: Practice of writing sculptors’ names & adding dates, years, & tithi on inscriptions began during Ikshvaku period.

·       Sculptor Bhattacharya: Name found – Vihara at Nagarjunakonda.

·       Amaravati & Nagarjunakonda Universities: Gained popularity; Nagarjunakonda became – major Buddhist arama in 2nd century A.D.

·       Acoustic Center: Significant construction at Nagarjunakonda.

Nelakondapally Stupa:

·       Important stupa built during Ikshvakus, where Buddha statues & copper Buddha statue were found.

·       Gajula Banda: Buddha stupa & lion toys made of white stone found here.

Other Constructions:

·       Sarvadevalayam at Neeleeswaram

·       Saptamatruka Statues at Chejarla

·       Veerapuram Temple

·       Sculptures at Konidena, Peddamudium

·       Viragal Tradition: – practice of installing statues of martyrs (Viragal) started during Ikshvakus.

·       Coin Symbol: Nandi (Bull).

·       Origin: Amarabad mandal, Mahabubnagar district.

·       Religious Role: Performed Hiranyagarbha Yagna.

·       Pilgrimage Site: Uma Maheshwaram known for a unique Mango tree with bee-emitting fruits.

·       Sanskritization: Capital changed from Mamidipuram to Amarapuram.

·       First Capital: Amarapuram (Amrabad mandal HQ).

·       Second Capital: Denduluru (West Godavari).

·       Title: Awarded “Trikutamalaya” by Kandara kings.

·       Inscriptions: Govinda Varma-I and Vikramendra Bhattaraka issued Tummala Gudem inscriptions.

·       Keelhorn’s View: Vishnukundina is Sanskritised from Vinukonda.

·        Feudatories: Subordinates to Vakatakas.

·        Self-sufficient rural economy with a focus on agriculture.

·        International trade with Rome, Greece, and East Asia.

·        Title “Trisamudradipathi” given to Madhav Varma II, signifying control over trade routes across three seas.

Coins

·        Copper and iron coins minted with inscriptions of “Sri Parvata” and symbols like Lion and Shankha.

·        Shells used as currency, as noted by Chinese traveler Fa-hein.

·        Goldsmith craftsmanship indicated by golden Buddha idols mentioned by Hiuen Tsang.

·        Artifacts: Iron sniff box (7 cm) found at Keesara Gutta.

·        Roman coins of Constantine (A.D. 306-337) found near Alampur.

Art and Architecture

·        Temple Features: Key elements included Garbagriha, Mukha Mandapam, and Artha Mandapam.

·        Official Emblem: Roaring lion statues at Bhuvanagiri Fort suggest – fort’s origins with – Vishnukundins.

·        Buddhist Centers: Phanigiri and Nelakondapally -significant Buddhist hubs during – Vishnukundin period.

·        Nelakondapally Stupa: Known as Virat Stupa, later referred to as – throne of Virata Raja.

·        Chaitya Decorations: Buddhist Aramas seen at Gouri Gundam waterfalls and L. Madugu (Peddapalli District).

·        Jaina Aramas: Found in Komati caves near L. Madugu.

·        Shiva-Shakti Temples: Major temples included Uma Maheshwaram, Saleshwaram caves, and Alampur near Amaravati.

·        Uma Maheshwaram: Nor-rn gateway to Srisailam with a Shiva Linga designed by Pallavas and Nagara Bheri by Vishnukundins.

·        Saleshwaram Cave Temples: Brahmi inscriptions like “Vishvesha kakkalasa” discovered by Dr. Dyavanavalli Satyanarayana.

·        Caste system streng-ned under Vishnukundins.

·        Madhav Varma showed respect for elders by bowing and touching parents’ feet.

·        Inscriptions mention Varna system adherence and respect for family.

Literature & Religion

·        Sanskrit made official language.

·        Chikkulla Copper inscription includes Telugu phrase “Vijayarajya Samvastharambul.”

·        Tolchuvandlu, a Telugu word, found on a rock at Keesara Gutta.

Titles:

·       Indra Bhattaraka Varma: “Ghatika Vastha Punya Sanchaya.”

·       Madhav Varma II: “Vidya Dvijaguda Vistha Varuda Tapasvi Jain Ashraya.”

·       Govinda Varma: “Shadabignya.”

·        Vishnukundin kings were patrons of literature and poets.

·        Vishnukundins were followers of Vedic religion.

·        Family deity: Sri Parvata Swamy.

·        First to build Hindu cave temples in South India.

·        Built Uma Maheshwaram temple at Amrabad, – Nor-rn Gateway for Srisailam.

·        -y supported Vedic religion but did not oppose o-r religions.

Jainism:

·        Srisailam – a significant Jain center during -ir period, later becoming a Shaiva center.

·        Mentioned in Dharma Amrutham by Jain poet Nyaya Sena.

·        Jainism declined due to – Kapalika sect.

Buddhism:

·        Prominent Buddhist Guru: Dignaga (taught Yogacara methods, wrote Pramana Samuccaya).

·        Buddhism declined by – end of -ir rule.

·        Bojjana Konda – a notable Buddhist site.

·        Symbolic stupa: Lingala Mettu.

·        Madhav Varma punished his son for causing a merchant’s son’s death.

·        New Vajrayana sect (5th century A.D.) emerged, later discredited due to inclusion of women, alcohol, and black magic.

·        Brahmins re-established Vaishnavism, converting Buddhist centers – Vaishnava temples, claiming Buddha as – 9th incarnation of Vishnu.

·        Satavahana rulers -support to Buddhism.

·        Issued land grants, tax exemptions, and privileges to Buddhist monasteries.

·        Encouraged Buddhist monks &scholars – propagate teachings.

Development of Buddhist Sites:

·        Nagarjunakonda (present-day Telangana) became a major Buddhist center -stupas and monasteries.

·        Buddhist centers like Amaravati grew under Satavahana rule, attracting pilgrims & scholars.

Art and Architecture:

·        Satavahanas commissioned grand stupas (e.g., Amaravati) with intricate carvings.

·        Buddhist viharas featured exquisite sculptures and paintings, reflecting Satavahana artistic patronage.

Scholarly Exchange:

·        Nagarjuna, a key figure in Mahayana Buddhism and the Madhyamaka school, hailed from the region.

·        Nagarjunakonda became a hub for Buddhist learning, fostering intellectual exchanges.

Trade and Cultural Exchange:

·        Satavahanas controlled key trade routes, facilitating- spread – Buddhist ideas.

·        Buddhist missionaries &merchants used -routes to extend Buddhism’s reach -Southeast Asia.

·       Ikshvakus provided land grants, financial aid, and royal patronage to Buddhist monasteries and stupas, fostering Buddhist growth.

Centers Monastic:

·       Nagarjunakonda, Amaravati, and Ghantasala were key Buddhist hubs, constructed/renovated under Ikshvaku rule, attracting monks and scholars.

Artistic Contributions:

·       Amaravati Stupa featured intricate reliefs of Buddha’s life and Jataka tales, showcasing Ikshvaku patronage in Buddhist art and architecture.

Scholarly Exchange:

·       Ikshvakus promoted scholarly debates within Buddhist communities, facilitating the growth of Buddhist philosophy and textual studies.

Enduring Legacy:

·       Ikshvaku patronage left a lasting impact on Buddhism in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, ensuring the religion’s continued cultural and religious presence.

·       Buddhism – widespread during the first phase of the Vishnukundin rule.

Patronage:

·       Early Vishnukundin rulers, though Vedic followers, patronized Buddhism.

Monastic Centers

·       constructed and maintained Buddhist Aramas and Viharas across their kingdom.

Vishnukundins:

Last Telugu kings to patronize Buddhism.

·       Vajrayana Sect: Emerged in Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda by the 5th century BCE; known for introducing women, wine, mutton, deceitful mantras.

·       Decline of Purity: Vajrayana sect led to a loss of Buddhist purity, making centers infamous.

·       Brahmin Influence: Brahmins gained influence, portraying Buddha as Vishnu’s 9th avatar.

·       Temple Conversions: Many Buddhist centers transformed – Vaishnava temples, like Narasimha temples.

·       Dharmapur: Originally a Buddhist center, later converted – Ramalingeswara Swamy and Narsimha Swamy temples.

Jainism:

• Prevalence: Jainism flourished in Srisailam and Amrabad areas before Vishnukundins.
• Decline: Jainism declined due to the rise of the Kapalika Shaiva sect with its magic and mantras.
• Temple Conversions: Jain temples were converted to Shaiva temples, including Srisailam Temple.
• Kumarilabhattu: Initially a Jain, Kumarilabhattu rejected Jainism, attracting many to Vedic religion.
• Indra Varma: Indra Varma, first Vishnukundin king, shifted from Jainism to Vedic religion.

·       7th Century A.C: Buddhism began to decline and – integrated – Hinduism as the ninth avatar of Vishnu.

Jainism:

·       Jainism thrived with royal patronage.

·       Arikesari II (Vemulawada Chalukya): Built Tribhuvanatilaka Vasadi, installed 24 Tirthankaras by Jinavallabha.

·       Baddega: Constructed Subhadhamma Jinalaya, appointed Somadeva (Jaina poet).

·       Kalyani Chalukyas: Supported Jain centers with rich donations.

·       10th Century: Saivism rose, leading to conflicts and conversion of many Jain temples – Saivite temples.

Theme 2:   Velama’s

Theme 3:   Qutub Shahis

Theme 4:  Protest Movements against Kakatiyas and          Qutub Shahis- Sammakka Sarakka and Sarvaipapanna

·       Scholars debate the origin, caste, and name of the Kakatiyas.

·       Gundyana is considered the first Kakatiya, mentioned in the Magallu Grant (956 CE) of Eastern Chalukyan Prince Daanarnava.

·       Kakatiyas started as soldiers under the Rashtrakutas and later served the Eastern Chalukyas as provincial officials in Koravi and Khammam.

Name Theories:

·       Some historians link the name to a village called Kakatipuram, though its location remains uncertain.

·       Another theory suggests the name derives from the family deity Kakatamma.

·       Historian P.V. Parabrahma Sastry posits that the Kakatiyas worshiped Goddess Kakati, an incarnation of Durga, hence the name.

Rulers: Unified Telugu-speaking people; contemporaries of Yadavas, Hoyasalas, Pandyas, and Delhi Sultans.

·       Scholars: Works by Nilakanta Sastri, M. Rama Rao, Cynthia Talbot.

·       Mission Kakatiya: Telangana’s irrigation program inspired by Kakatiya systems.

Epigraphical Sources:

·       Mugallu Grant (956 CE): Mentions Kakatiya chief Gundyana.

·       Thousand Pillar Temple (1163 CE): Rudradeva declares sovereignty.

·       Bayyaram Tank (1219 CE): Built by Mailambika, sister of Ganapatideva.

·       Motupalli (1244 CE): Ganapatideva’s support for external trade.

·       Malkapuram (1261 CE): Mentions educational institutions.

·       Chandupatla (1289 CE): Records Rudramadevi’s death.

Literary Sources:

·       Sanskrit & Telugu Works: Panditaradhya Charitram, Prataparudra Yashobhusahanam, Nrutyaratnavali.

·       Muslim Accounts: Tarik-e-Ferishta, Tarikh-e-Feroz Shahi.

·       Marco Polo: External trade under Rudramadevi.

Kakatiya Gundyana (956 CE):

·       First historical Kakatiya figure, mentioned in the Magallu Grant of Daanarnava and Baggaram epigraph.

·       Contemporary of Rashtrakuta King Krishna III.

·       Played a key role in Daanarnava’s victory over his stepbrother Ammaraju.

·       After Rashtrakuta decline (973 CE), Gundyana declared authority in Koravi and supported Mudigonda Chalukyas but died in battle.

·       Viriyala Yerranna (General) and Viriyala Kamasani (maternal aunt) saved Beta-I.

Beta-I (1000-1052 CE):

·       Son of Gundyana, served as the chief of Anumakonda Vishaya.

·       Invaded Kanchipuram under Chalukyan King Someshwara I (1051 CE).

Prola-I (1052-1076 CE):

·       Son of Beta-I, served under Someshwara I.

·       Made Anumakonda the capital and built Kesamudram Tank at Warangal.

Beta-II (1076-1108 CE):

·       Son of Prola-I, served Vikramaditya-VI of the Chalukyas.

·       Supported Vikramaditya-VI in succession war against Bhuvanaikamalla Someshwara.

·       Bestowed with Sabbinadu (Karimnagar) and assumed titles Tribhuvanamalla and Mahamandaleshwara.

Prola-II (1116-1157 CE):

·       Brother of Durgaraya, succeeded him.

·       His achievements are detailed in the Anumakonda Thousand Pillar Temple epigraph.

·       Supported Someshwara-III in seizing the Kalyani Chalukyan throne.

·       Defeated Tailava – feudatories like Medaraja of Polavasa.

·       Killed by Inagala Brahmi Reddi, General of Velanatichola King.

Rudradeva (1158 CE):

·       Son of Prola-II, declared sovereign power in 1163 CE.

·        First Sovereign Ruler: Declared sovereignty in 1163 CE (Anumakonda Thousand Pillar inscription).

·        Conquests: Defeated Nagara Chiefs, Dommaraju, Medaraja-II, Choda Udaya, and Kanduri Chola Bhima.

·        Capital: Laid foundation for new capital at Warangal.

·        Death: Killed in battle with Yadava King Jaitugi in 1195 CE.

Mahadeva (1195-1199 CE):

·        Younger brother of Rudradeva.

·        Died fighting Yadava army; his son Ganapatideva was set free by Yadava King Jaitrapala.

Ganapatideva (1199-1262 CE):

·        Great Ruler: Expanded Kakatiya territory over Coastal Andhra.

·        Military Conflicts: Confronted Yadava rulers, Velanadu, Hoyasalas.

·        Victories: Defeated Prithvishwara (Velanadu), Pinna Choda (Divisima), and formed matrimonial alliances.

·        Nellore Alliance (1208 CE): Helped Manumasiddhi reclaim Nellore throne.

·        Defeats: Lost Battle of Muttukur (1263 CE) to Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan.

·        Legacy: Strengthened Kakatiya power, nominated daughter Rudramadevi as successor, completed Warangal Fort construction, moved capital to Warangal.

Rudramadevi (1263-1289 CE)

·        Succession: Nominated by her father Ganapatideva; took power -1263 CE.

·        Training: Skilled in warfare &statecraft, trained by – father.

·        Achievements: 26-year reign saw progress and stability; ruled -determination.

·        Revolts Crushed:

·       Defeated cousins Harihara &Murari in a revolt.

Key Officials:

·       Supported by loyal officials such as Kayasta Jannigadeva, Tripurari, Gonaganna Reddy, Recherla Prasaditya, Malyala Gundiya, and Inuluri Annayya.

Military Campaigns:

·       Defeated invasions – Ganga& Yadava rulers.

·       Recherla Prasaditya led Kakatiya forces and defeated Yadava King Mahadeva.

·       Described as “Kakatiya Rajya Sthapanacharya” in Velugotivaari Vamsavali.

Matrimonial Alliance:

·       Formed an alliance with the Yadavas; Ellannadeva of the Yadava family married Rudrama’s daughter.

Revolt of Ambadeva (1289 CE):

·       Rebelled against Rudramadevi with his supporters.

·       Chandupatla inscription (1289 CE) records Rudrama’s death while fighting Ambadeva.

·       Successor: Succeeded by her grandson, Prataparudra-II.

Prataparudra-II (1289-1323 CE):

·        Last Kakatiya ruler, adopted by Rudramadevi.

·        Defeated Kayasta Ambadeva and crushed revolts in Nellore.

Khilji Invasions:

·        1303 CE: Defeated Khilji’s forces at Battle of Upparapalli.

·        1309 CE: Defeated by Malik Kafur, accepted subordinate status.

·        Suppressed internal revolts with Juttayya Gonkaya Reddi.

·        1323 CE: Defeated by Ulugh Khan (Tughlaq), captured, and committed suicide in Narmada River.

·        End of Kakatiya rule, Warangal renamed Sultanpur, Muslim rule in Andhradesa began.

·        Monarchy: Kakatiyas followed hereditary monarchy, even though they were Sudras.

·        Influence: Based on principles of Narada, Sukra, and Kautilya for sound governance.

·        King’s Role: The King was the supreme head of the state and administration.

Polity Theories:

·        Burton Stein (American historian): Compared Kakatiya polity to the Cholas’ “Segmentary State” system.

·        C.V. Ramachandra Rao (Native historian): Disagreed with Stein, stating no similarity between Kakatiya and Chola polity.

·        Romila Thapar (Indian scholar): Described Kakatiya polity as a “Metropolitan” State similar to the Mauryan polity.

·        Most historians agree it was a decentralized monarchy.

Central Government:

·        King: Supreme head of state, army, and justice, following principles from earlier political thinkers.

·        Council of Ministers: Assisted by Pradhani, Amatya, Mantri, Senadhipathi in state management.

·        Feudatory Kings: Involved in decision-making processes.

·        72 Departments (Niyogas): State divided – 72 Niyogas; led by Bahattara-niyogadhipathi.

·        Source: Information supported –Purusharthasaram of Shivadevayya.

·        Army: King personally led military when needed.

·        Royal Succession: Kakatiyas recognized the right of daughters to the royal throne.

Provincial Administration:

·        Expansion: Authority extended across Andhradesa.

·        Divisions: Kingdom split into Rastras, Sthalas, and Nadus from Ganapatideva’s reign.

·        1313 CE Inscription: Details from Prataparudra-II’s period.

·        Key Provinces: Kammanadu, Sabbinadu, Pakanadu, Renadu, Venginadu, Mulkinadu.

·        Sthalas: Regions like Warangal, Anumakonda, each with ~20 villages.

·        Governance: Provincial Governors and Sthala officers followed central authority.

·        Lowest Administrative Unit: Village was the basic unit of Kakatiya administration.

·        Ayagars (Panniddaru Ayagars): Twelve village servants responsible for village services, including Karnam, Reddy, Purohit, blacksmith, carpenter, goldsmith, etc.

·        Compensation: Ayagars received land or crop share (mera) for their services, with tax exemptions.

·        Key Officials: Karnam, Reddy, Talari were the chief government servants at the village level.

Nayankara System:

·        Chaturangabala Army: Consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots.

·        Forts and Nayankara Units: Kakatiyas built forts and created Nayankara units to strengthen military organization.

·        Nayakas’ Role: Nayakas were appointed to manage villages and maintain a specific number of forces, including horses, infantry, and elephants.

·        Land-Allotment: Land grants formed the connection between king and Nayakas; described in Prataparudra’s Nitisaram.

·        Subordinate Rulers: Maintained armies in support of the king.

·        Reorganization: The Nayankara system was reorganized under Prataparudra-II and later became more prominent under the Vijayanagara rulers.

Judicial System:

·        Chief Judge: The King acted as the chief judge.

·        Court: Referred to as Dharmasthanam in contemporary sources.

·        Village-Level Justice: Karnam, Reddy, Talari held judicial and police powers at the village level.

Dispute Resolution:

·        Guntur epigraphs mention village boundary disputes resolved by village heads and Mahajans.

·        Canal disputes were handled by judicial officials.

·        4 Nyaya Sabhas (Courts):

·        Pratistita: Temporary judicial branch in the capital city.

·        Apratistita: Temporary judicial branch in villages.

·        Samudrika: Ministers or Pradvivahaka acted as judges.

·        Sashita Apratistita: The king acted as the judge.

·        Duggirala Inscription: Ganapati Deva resolved border disputes between Duggirala and Morampudi villages.

·        Special Judges: Known as Pradvikas in the king’s court.

·        Dharmasasanas: Formed for special cases, with judgments recorded as Jayapathras.

·        Mudra Vartha Officers: Responsible for official stamping of Jayapathras.

·        Talari: Ensured no robbery occurred in villages.

·        Jainism Support: Early Kakatiya chiefs supported Jainism. Centers – Bodhan, Vemulawada, Patancheru, Kolanupaka, Anumakonda were prominent Jain hubs.

·        Prola-I and Beta-I donated land and cash to Jain Basadis (temples). Siddheshwara Charitam by Kase Diddappa describes this patronage.

·        Saivism & Vaishnavism: Gained popularity under sovereign Kakatiya kings.

·        Saivite Sects: Kalamukhas, Kaapalikas, Pasupatas, Aaradhya Saivites, Veerashaivites.

·        Major Saivite centers: Vemulawada, Dharmapuri, Kaleshwaram, Alampur, Pangal, Kanteshwar.

·        Golakimatas: Founded at Manthema, Malkapuram, Somadila, Madadam.

·        Vaishnavism: Rudradeva built Thousand Pillar Temple at Anumakonda (Trikuta Alayam); Ganapatideva’s sister Mailambika built Gopala Krishna Temple at Inugarthi.

Famous Temples:

·        Thousand Pillar Temple (Anumakonda), Ramappa Temple (Palampet), temples at Pillalamarri, Nagulapadu, Raikal, Ghanpur, Bejjanki, Kaleshwaram renowned for art and architecture.

Ramappa Temple (UNESCO World Heritage Site, 2021):

·        Kakatiya Architecture: Known for floating bricks and sand-box foundations.

·        Named after Sculptor: Unique temple named after sculptor Ramappa.

·        Built in 1213 AD: By Ganapathi Deva and Chief Commander Rudra Samani.

·        Construction: Took 40 years; built on a 6-foot-high platform.

·        Features: Intricate carvings, shikharam, and pradakshinapatha.

Literature:

·       Telugu & Sanskrit literature flourished.

·       Notable works: Basavapuranam, Panditaradhya Charitam (Palkuriki Somanatha), Kreedhabhiramam (Vallabharaya), Nitisaram (Rudradeva), Nrutya Ratnavali (Jayapa).

·       Tikkana: Translated 15 parvas of Mahabharata into Telugu, wrote Nirvachanottara Ramayanam.

·        Primary Occupation: Agriculture was the main livelihood for most people.

·        Coastal Andhra Conquest: Brought rich natural resources under Kakatiya control.

·        Land Revenue: Chief source of income; land categorized as magani and metta.

·        Agricultural Land: Regular fields called achukattuboomulu; new lands cultivated as Dashabandha lands with tax exemptions.

·        Crops: Large-scale cultivation of paddy, barley, jowar.

·        Agricultural Taxes: Included Diddhayam, Sangamu, Pannu, Kanika, Darshanam, Niruvdi, Ardhayam, Pullari (tax on grasslands).

Trade:

·        Internal and External trade: major trade centers like Orugallu, Anumakonda, Alampur, Panugallu, Motupalli, Vemulawada, Machilipatnam.

·        Local trade: Conducted at santas or pemtas.

·        Textiles: Orugallu textiles were famous.

·        Trade guilds: Existed, with Setti as the head.

·        Motupalli Port: Renowned for external trade; key exports included textiles, spices, diamonds.

·        Taxes: Collected by Sunkamanyagarlu (tax officers).

·        Mentioned taxes include burrasunkam (wedding tax), pellisunkam (marriage tax), revusunkam (tax on ports), alam (tax on vegetables), and antharayam (tax on arecanut).

·        Velamas/Padmanayakas: Also known as Recharla Velamas; their gotra is Recharla.

·        Source: History of Padmanayakas documented in Velugoti Vamshavali.

·        Post-Kakatiya Rule: After the fall of the Kakatiyas, Recharla Velamas ruled parts of Nalgonda and Mahabubnagar districts.

·        Musunuri Kingdom: After Kapaya Nayaka’s death, they annexed the Musunuri Kingdom and administered the entire Telangana region.

·        Capitals: Ruled for 150 years with Rachakonda and Devarakonda as capitals.

·        Feudatories: Originally served as feudatories under the Kakatiyas.

·        Bethala Nayaka: Born in Amanagallu, Nalgonda district, and made regional head by Ganapati Deva (1225-1253 AD).

·        Sons of Bethala Nayaka:

o   Recharla Rudra: Army chief under Ganapathi Deva.

o   Recharla Prasaditya: Army chief during Rudrama Devi’s reign.

·        Founder of the independent Velama kingdom.

·        Capital at Amanagallu, Nalgonda.

·        Known as Ashiti Varala Singama Nayaka (received 80 gifts from Pratapa Rudra).

• Expanded kingdom to Eleswaram.

Anapota Nayaka I (A.D. 1361-84)

·        Moved capital to Rachakonda.

·        Earned title “Semakula Parashurama” after defeating Somavamsha Kshatriya.

·        Built Rachakonda fort and Anapota Samudram.

·        Titles: Hindu Raya Suratrana, Khadga Narayana, Andhra Desh Adhiswara.

·        Divided kingdom, appointed Madha Nayaka as ruler of Devarakonda.

Singama Nayaka II (Sarvagna Singana)

·        Greatest Velama ruler, also a poet.

·        Titles: Sarvagna Chakravarthy, Kalyana Bhupati, Sarvagna Chudamani.

·        Patronized Vaishnavism and literature.

·        Notable works by his court poets: “Chamatkara Chandrika” (Vishweswara), commentary on “Amarakosham” (Appayya Matya).

·        His own works: Rasarnava Sudhakara, Sangeeta Sudhakaram, Ratna Panchalika.

Anapota Nayaka II

·        Known as Kumara Anapota Nayaka, fought Bahmani and Reddy Raju forces.

 Rao Madha Nayaka

·        Follower of Vaishnavism, donated Thorrur village as Sri Rangapura Agraharam.

·        Built Naga Samudram tank; his wife Nagambika issued inscriptions.

Singama Nayaka III (A.D. 1430-75)

·        Last ruler of Rachakonda.

·        Titles: Dhivishaludu, Sarvagna Rao Singama Nayaka, Mummadi Singama Nayaka.

·        Court poets: Bammera Pothana, Gourana, Bhourava Kavi.

·        Inscriptions: Shayampet (1464), Tirupati (1475), Bellamkonda (1453).

Madha Nayaka:

·       Founder of Devarakonda Velama Kingdom.

·       Capital at Devarakonda.

·       Built Madhavapuram city near Devarakonda.

·       Constructed Dwara Mandapa at Umamaheshwaram (Northern gateway to Srisailam).

Lingamanidu:

·       Last ruler of Devarakonda Kingdom.

·       Rule ended due to annexation by the Bahmani Sultanate.

Administration:

·        Hemadri’s Book: Wrote “Vratha Kannada Kalpataru” to protect Vedic religion and Varna system, used as a guide for Velama administration.

·        Village Administration: The smallest division was the village, with 12 Ayagars known as Pannida Raya Gandru.

·        Village Security: Guards were called Muthaka Raju.

·        Military Expenses: Velamas spent heavily on soldiers due to continuous warfare.

·        Tactical Warfare: According to Sakala Neeti Sammatham by Madiki Singana, Velamas poisoned lakes and wells near enemy travel routes.

Main Occupation: Agriculture was the primary livelihood.

Brahmins in Cultivation: Potana and Srinatha noted that Brahmins also engaged in farming.

Types of Land:

·        Metta (uplands)

·        Tari (moist land)

·        Horticulture land.

Crops:

·        Jowar was the main crop due to Metta lands.

·        Rich people consumed rice.

·        Paddy varieties: Shiramukhi, Kalama, Shali, Hayapa, Ethanga Hoyana.

Cattle Rearing: Another significant occupation; Kilaras (animal houses) were attached to temples.

Land Tax: Main source of income, set at 1/6th of the crop produce.

Grain Storage: Villages had Rachagadelu storage units to store grain collected as tax.

Industries and Trade:

·        Textile Industry: Key centers: Orugallu, Rachakonda, Devarakonda. Notable sarees: Rama Singaram, Vasantha Singaram, Pattu Sarees.

·        Kalamkari Industry: Also prominent.

·        Iron Swords: World-famous craftsmanship.

·        Trunk Industry: Mentioned in Rukhmangadha Charita.

·        Trade: Managed by Balijas and Vaisyas.

·        Main Port: Vadapalli (River Krishna).

·        Conflict: Velamas vs Reddy Raju for sovereignty over Vadapalli.

·        Caste System: Brahmins gained power, while Kshatriyas weakened.

·        Women’s Position: Deteriorated – Muslim invasions; women stayed indoors.

·        Social Evils: Sati and child marriages emerged due to external invasions.

·        Marriage Customs: Grand royal marriages, dowry called “Aranam”.

·        Clothing:

1.      Men wore dhoti and shirts.

2.      Women wore colorful sarees; 49 types of silk sarees and 14 types of ornaments mentioned in Simhasana Dwatrimshika by Koravi Goparaju.

3.      Higher caste women wore saree pallu on the right, lower caste women wore it on the left.

·        Dance Forms: Native forms like Perini, Bharatanatyam, Jakini, Goundilu.

·        Foreign Dance: Paarashika Mathali from abroad.

·       Early Patronage: Initially supported Shaivism.

·       Theravada Shaivism: Worship of Rudra forms of Shiva like Bhairava and Mailaru.

·       Violent Practices: Ranamu Kadupu and Chapudu Gudi were practiced.

·       Hinduism Protection: After defeating Muslim rulers, they worked to protect Hindu culture.

·       Agraharas: Renovated Brahmin Agraharas damaged by Muslim invasions.

Vaishnavism:

·       Later Patronage: Last rulers shifted focus to Vaishnavism.

·       Two Sects: Emerged within Vaishnavism—Thengal and Vadagal.

·       Vadagal Sect: Preached by Vedanta Desika.

·        Official Language: Sanskrit was the official language.

·        Court Poets of Singama Nayaka III:

Bammera Potana:

·         Bammera village, Warangal district.

·        Titles: Sahaja Kavi, Bhakta Potana, Maha Bhagavat Kartha.

Works:

·        Veera Bhadra Vijayam

·        Andhra Maha Bharatam

·        Narayana Shatakam

·        Bhogini Dandakam (based on Sarvagna Singama Nayaka’s love story).

Gourana:

·        From Ramagiri, Telangana.

·        Title: Sarasa Sahitya Lakshana Chakravarti.

·        Works: Lakshana Deepika, Navanadha Charita, Harishchandra Upakyanam.

Bhairava Kavi:

·        Introduced Banda Kavitha style in Telangana.

·        Works: Sriranga Mahatmyam, Ratna Pariksha.

Koravi Goparaju:

·        Court poet of Rana Mallu, from Veligallu (Bheemgal), Nizamabad.

·        Wrote Simhasana Dwatrimshika (32 stories of King Vikramarka).

·        Translated Tri Shashti Salakapuru Satcharitra from Sanskrit to Telugu.

Temples Built by Velamas:

·       Rachakonda Velamas: Bhairava Temple, Rama Temple, Lakshmi Devi Temple.

·       Devarakonda: Shiva Temple, Rama Temple.

·       Bhuvanagiri: Someshwara Temple.

Forts:

Rachakonda Fort:

·        Features 3-ringed walls.

·        Rama Temple on the west, Bhairava Statue, Mosque built by Bahmani Sultans.

·        Two Bhoga Mandapas: Bhogamdani Mancham, Bhogamdani Gudulu.

·        Vaishnava Temple in the southeast.

·        Paintings of Putrakameshti Yagam and Ashwamedha Yagam discovered by Dr. Dyavanavalli Satyanarayana.

·        Other Forts: Devarakonda, Bhuvanagiri, Orugallu

·       Arabic, Persian, Urdu, Telugu flourished.

·       Persian: Official state language.

·       Urdu: Qutb Shahis significantly promoted Urdu literature.

·       Ibrahim Qutb Shah’s court included poets like Firoz Muhammad (wrote Tasif Nama) and Mulla Qiyali.

·       Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah: Renowned Urdu poet; composed Khanide, Gazal, and Marsi.

·       Vajihi: Famous for Qutub-e-Mushtari and Subras.

·       Ahmad: Composed Laila Majnu.

·       Abdullah Qutb Shah: Golden Age of Urdu, supported poet Gawasi, who wrote Maina Satwanti and Saif-ul-Mulk.

·        Telugu Literature:

·       Sultan Quli and Jamshid issued inscriptions in Telugu.

·       Ibrahim Qutb Shah learned Telugu and Sanskrit; called Malikiba Rama by Telugu people.

·       Prominent Telugu poets: Addanki Gangadhar (Tapti Samharnopakyanam), Mariganti Singaracharya, Kandukuri Rudra (Niramkushopakyanam), Ponnaganti Telaganarya (Yayati Charitra), and Kshetrayya.

·       Gopanna: Composed songs on Sri Rama, served as Tahasildar of Bhadrachalam.

·       Nebati Krishnaiah Amathya: Rajaniti Ratnakara in Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah’s court.

·       Malla Reddy: Shivadharmottara.

·       Yella Reddy: Vashistam and Lingapuranam.

·       Pattamatta Somayaji: Brahottara Kandam.

The Qutb Shahi period was marked by the promotion of Urdu, Telugu, and Persian literature, with an emphasis on Urdu poetry and support for local Telugu scholars.

Golconda Fort:

·        Rebuilt and expanded by Qutb Shahi rulers.

·        Sultan Quli: Built the boundary wall, Safa Mosque (inscribed by Abdul Karim), and Dawlatkhana (Royal Palace). Renamed Golconda as Muhammadnagar.

·        Ibrahim Qutb Shah: Strengthened fortifications; built 7,000-meter fort wall in 1559-60, added Mecca Darwaza facing Mecca. Entire fort took 62 years to complete (1518 AD). Fort contained 87 semi-circular bastions, height 50-60 ft, and circumference 4 miles.

·        Musa Khan Burj built by Dharma Char under Qutb Shahi General Musa Khan.

Purana Pul (Bridge):

·        Constructed by Ibrahim Qutb Shah over Musi River.

·        22 arches, length 600 yards, width 35 feet; cost 2,50,000.

Hyderabad City:

·        Founded by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah in 1591 AD.

·        Built on a gridiron pattern with 12,000 precincts, 14,000 buildings, including shops, mosques, schools, and rest houses.

·        Charminar built – 1592 AD with 4 decorated arches and minarets reaching 160 feet. Designed – Mir Abu Talib(Nazir-ul-Mulk).

·        Constructed in 1592 AD by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah.

·        Arches: Machli Kaman (north), Kali Kaman (east), Sher Dil Kaman (west), and Char Minar Kaman (south).

Mecca Masjid:

·        Foundation laid by Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah in 1617 AD.

·        Construction supervised by Faizullah Baig, Choudari Rangaiah, and Musa Khan.

·        Accommodates 10,000 people. Completed during Aurangzeb’s rule. Dimensions: 225 feet long, 180 feet wide, 75 feet high. 700 bullocks carried stones for the construction.

Badshahi Ashur Khana:

·        Built in 1596 AD by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah.

·        Central hall: 87 feet long, 17 feet wide; floral decorations and tiles adorn the hall.

 Daru’sh Shifa (1595 AD):

·        Built by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah as a hospital and college of Unani medicine.

·        Provided free medical treatment, lodging, and scholarships to students.

Qutb Shahi Tombs:

·        Located in Golconda Fort, referred to as the Seven Tombs.

·        Tombs of rulers: Sultan Quli, Jamshid Quli, Ibrahim Quli, Muhammad Quli, Muhammad Qutb Shah, Abdullah Qutb Shah, and Abul Hassan Tanisha.

Other Monuments:

·        Notable palaces: Dad Mahal, Khuda Mahal, Chandan Mahal, Lal Mahal, Nadi Mahal, Hussaini Mahal, Mishk Mahal.

·        Lakes: Hussain Sagar, Ibrhimpatanam Tank, and Budwel Tank.

·        Hyderabad and Golconda served as major diamond trade centers during Qutb Shahi rule.

·        Sultan: Absolute power, head of state, Zillullah (image of God), chief of all branches – legislature, judiciary, executive.

·        Council of Ministers: Majlis-i-Diwandari, key advisory body, met daily under Abdullah Qutb Shah; Yusuf Shah sent as ambassador in 1630 CE.

·        Peshwa (Prime Minister): Head of administration, became Diwan under Abul Hassan Tanashah; Madanna was last Diwan.

·        Mir Jumla (Finance Minister): Handled tax collection, budget; notable figures: Mir Momin, Mansur Khan Habashi.

·        Ain-ul-Mulk: Managed military affairs and strategy; key figures: Saif Khan, Mansoor Khan.

·        Nazir: Enforced respect for laws and policies; notable Nazirs: Abu-Talib, Meer Qasim.

·        Majumdar: Account-General, oversaw finances; notable appointee: Narayan Rao.

·        Dabir: Head of farman translations and distribution; key figures: Qazi Muzaffar Ali, Moulana Owaisi.

·        Kotwal: Commissioner of Police, maintained law and order, also supreme judge.

·        Sarkhel: Chief Revenue Officer, supervised districts and foreign traders.

·        Hawaldar: Managed government warehouses and stables.

·        Model: Organized on Bahmani Sultanate system with modifications.

·        Standing Army: Directly controlled by Sultan, stationed in the capital.

·        Military Leadership: Headed by Ain-ul-Mulk.

·        Composition: Army included Hindus, Muslims, and Iranis.

·        Jagirs: Granted to Tarafdars to maintain armed forces.

·        Military Expenditure: Under Abdul-Hassan Tanashah, approx. 8.84 lakh Hons spent on salaries yearly.

·        Forts: Strategically placed and controlled by experienced Fort Commanders.

·        Srilaskhar: Led the army during campaigns.

Judicial System

·        Legal System: Combined Islamic and Hindu (local) laws.

·        Courts: Established from village to Sultan’s level.

·        Key Figures: Qazis, Moulvis, and Hindu Pandits played vital roles in justice delivery.

·        Special Courts: Dadmahal founded by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, and Aman-Mahal by Abdullah Qutb Shah.

·        Sultan’s Involvement: Attended special courts weekly, delivered judgments with the aid of Qazis and Pandits.

·        Travellers’ Accounts: French travellers Tavernier and Bernier praised the fairness and efficiency of the Qutb Shahi judicial system.

·        Hindu-Muslim Unity: Liberal policies promoted unity.

·        Sources: Works like Tariq-e-Ferishta, Tariq-e-Qutb Shah, Sukasapthati, Yayathi Charita provide insights into social life.

·        Brahmins: Engaged in rituals, trade, agriculture; detailed description of their dress and lifestyle.

·        Sub-castes: Kapu, Reddy, Velama, Balija, artisans, and laborers played vital roles.

·        Women’s Position: Purdah system; limited freedom outside domestic life.

o   Social Evils: Child marriage, sati, prostitution, devadasi system.

o   Royal Women: Influential figures like Hayat Bakshi Begum and Chand Bibi excelled in arts and politics.

·        Cultural Practices: Dance forms like Perini, Bharatanatyam, Jakini. Foreign dance Paarashika Mathali.

Religious Conditions:

·        Religious Tolerance: Qutb Shahis adopted a policy of religious tolerance, supporting Hinduism and its festivals.

·        Hinduism: Abul Hasan donated lands to Bhadrachalam Ramadas Temple (1652 AD); support for Malleswaraswami temple.

·        Hindu Festivals: Celebrated Vijayadasami, Deepawali, Sankranti, Shivaratri.

·        Muslim Festivals: Ramzan, Bakrid, Nuroz, Basant, and Muharram celebrated by both Hindus and Muslims.

·        Charity: Qutb Shahis constructed alms-houses, with important alams like Bibika Chesma and Bibika Alam supported by diverse communities.

·        Golconda Kingdom’s Wealth: Derived from diamond mines and fertile coastal lands, foreign trade through Machilipatnam port.

·        Agriculture: Primary occupation; encouraged by Sultans with construction and repair of tanks and canals.

·        Irrigation Projects: Tanks like Hussain Sagar, Budwel Tank, Ibrahimpatnam Tank built during Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah‘s reign.  Water Supply Engineering: Tank near Golconda for royal family; Maa Sahab Tank by Khanam Agha for public water supply.

·        Land Categories: Zamindari lands were prominent for agricultural activities.

·        Commercial Crops: Cotton, jute, pulses, fruits, and flowers; Telangana region famous for grapes; Eluru renowned for indigo cultivation.

·        Agricultural Support: Sultans provided salaries to officials for maintaining tanks and canals.

·        Tank Repairs: Pangal Tank, Udaya Samudram Tank repaired by Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah; allocated shares of produce to peasants, soldiers, and Brahmins.

·        Notable Officials: Rahmatullah and Anthoji (Hawaldar) supported tank repairs in Nellore.

·        Agricultural Productivity: Increased through irrigation efforts, setting an example for future rulers.

·        Koya Tribe: Sammakka and Sarakka belonged to the Koya tribe, ancestors of Chandavaru, worshippers of Mother Goddess and Lord Shiva. Their ancestors established small kingdoms in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Telangana.

·        Family and Marriage: Sammakka was the daughter of Rayibandani Raju, ruler of Bhupalapatnam, and married Pagididda Raju, son of Samudra, ruler of Kottapalli (Bastar, Chhattisgarh). Pagididda Raju later became king of Medaram. Medaraju, Sammakka’s husband, ruled this area and was involved in conflicts with Prola II and Pratapa Rudra I of the Kakatiyas.

·        Medaram Kingdom and Migration: Medaraju refused to give his daughter Sarakka in marriage to Pratapa Rudra I. His kingdom was invaded by Kakatiya forces, leading to fierce battles. The family migrated to Medaram-Jaggayyapeta region in Warangal, where they established a small kingdom.

·        Battle of Dayyala Madugu: Sammakka’s son Jampanna died heroically fighting the Kakatiya army. The stream Jampanna Vaagu was named in his honor. The blood-stained waters of Jampanna Vaagu (due to soil composition) are revered by tribals, who take holy dips to honor the sacrifice.

·        Cultural and Welfare Contributions: Sammakka was skilled in traditional medicine, treating snake bites and curing chronic illnesses. Her descendants built tanks, wells like Burrikunta and Jalakam Bavi, saving lives during droughts.

·        Medaram Jatara: A major tribal festival celebrated in Telangana to honor the mother-daughter duo, Sammakka and Sarakka, who led resistance against oppressive rulers. The festival, known as Medaram Jatara, attracts millions of devotees and is second only to Kumbh Mela in India.

Jampanna Vaagu:

·        Jampanna Vaagu: Tributary of River Godavari named after Jampanna, who sacrificed his life fighting the Kakatiya army.

·        Holy Significance: Tribals believe taking a holy dip in the stream’s red waters symbolizes courage and honors the sacrifice of their heroes. The Jampanna Vagu Bridge is built over this stream.

·       Rebel Leader: Sarvai Papanna fought against Mughal rule and local elites, aiming to free Telangana from Mughal viceroys.

·       Main Center: Khalishpur, northeast of Warangal, was his primary base of operations.

·       Background: Born in Tarikonda, near Warangal, from the Kallu gita or Goud caste; sought to rise beyond his caste occupation.

·       Ambition: His goal was to capture the Golconda Fort and become a ruler, reflecting his leadership and vision for Telangana.

·       Influence of Literature: Papanna was hailed in Telugu verses and folklore as a symbol of hard work, leadership, and rebellion.

·       Resistance to Mughals: After the Mughal conquest of Golconda, Papanna built a small fort in Tarikonda and led a revolt against Mughal-appointed faujdars and zamindars.

·       Initial Conflict: By 1701, Venkata Rao, a Telugu zamindar, surrendered to Aurangzeb and became a Mansabdar. Papanna continued his resistance.

·       Victory at Kolanupaka (1701 CE): Papanna defeated Qasim Khan, the Mughal faujdar of Kolanupaka, establishing his prominence in Telangana.

·       Retreat and Fortification: Though partially defeated by Rustumdil Khan in 1702 CE, Papanna rebuilt Khilashapur Fort with the help of Sarvadu and Purdhil Khan.

·       Aurangzeb’s Death (1707 CE): After the emperor’s death, Papanna exploited the political chaos to capture Warangal and Bhuvanagiri Forts in 1708.

·       Economic Growth: He promoted agriculture around Khilashapur, strengthening his finances and military resources.

·        Recognition by Mughals: In 1707, Bahadur Shah I, the new Mughal emperor, invited Papanna to his Darbar and honored him with a Robe of Honor.

Theme 2:     Cultural Conditions in Hyderabad under Nizams: Social System, Jagirdars, Deshmukhs etc.and Vetti– British Paramountcy and Nizam- Revolt of 1857 in Hyderabad and the role of Turre Baz Khan;

Theme 3:     Socio- Economic Development during the rule of the sixth and seventh Nizams – Growth of Railways, Transport and Communication System, Establishment of Industries, Educational Institutions – Monuments of Asaf Jahi period

Theme 4:     Political Developments: Nizams of Hyderabad (1724-1948) Industrialisation in Hyderabad State

·       Titles: Received the titles Nizam-ul-Mulk and Asaf Jah from Mughal emperors Faruk Siyar and Muhammad Shah.

·       Territories: Included Telangana, Marathwada, and Karnataka.

·       Duration: Ruled for 224 years.

·       Declared independence from the Mughal Empire after Aurangzeb’s annexation of Golconda in 1687.

·        Mir Osman Ali Khan: Last Nizam, resisted joining India after 1947.

·         Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel: Led Police Action for Hyderabad’s integration.

·        Merger: Hyderabad joined Indian Union on 17th September 1948.

·        Asaf Jahi Era: Saw political and cultural growth under colonial rule.

·       Nizam-ul-Mulk’s Rule (1724 CE): Military-oriented, firmans were absolute laws. Revenue collection by zamindars, jagirdars, iqtadars, tahuddars. No major administrative reforms due to continuous wars.

·       Instability Post-Nizam-ul-Mulk: Internal rivalries reduced monarch power. Political conflicts and financial crises weakened the state.

·       British Influence: British Residents, with the support of Diwans (Prime Ministers), interfered in administration.

·       Mughal Deccan Territories: Divided into 6 subas—Aurangabad, Bidar, Khandesh, Berar, Bijapur, and Hyderabad. Subas were divided into sarkars, paraganas/mahals, and deh/qasba (smallest administrative unit).

·       Zillabandi System (1905): Districts reorganized; changes continued until 1948.

·       Served under three Nizams: Nasir-ud-daula (1853-57), Afzal-ud-daula (1857-69), Mir Mahboob Ali Khan (1869-83).

·       Family: Grandfather – Munirul Mulk; Uncle – Siraj-ul-mulk; Political advisor – Nawab Sarwar-ul-mulk.

·       Title: Called “Firangi bacha” by Nasir-ud-daula.

·       Visited London in 1876: To retrieve Berar from British; received D.C.L. honorary degree from Oxford.

·       Key Purchase: Bought “Veiled Rebecca” statue in Rome; now in Salar Jung Museum.

·       Reforms: Introduced modern administrative principles to stabilize Hyderabad’s economy and governance.

·       Nizam Kingdom Area: 82,698 miles during Salar Jung I’s tenure.

·       Hyderabad Population (1881): 98,45,594.

·       Administrative Division: Kingdom divided into 5 subas and 17 districts.

·       Village Officers:

·       Patel: Village headman.

·       Patwari: Land tax collection and accounting.

·       Talari: Village security.

·       Dhed: Officer assistant, worked in community halls.

·       Neri: Managed irrigation works.

·       Sedisindi: Security for 50 houses in the village.

·       Council of Ministers (1868): Sadar-ul-Mihams.

·       Revenue Minister: Mukarram-ud-daula Bahadur.

·       Law Minister: Bashir-ud-daula Bahadur.

·       Police Incharge: Shamshir Jung Bahadur.

·       Public Works Head: Shaheb Jung.

·       Key Secretary: Syed Hussain Bilgrami.

·       Departments directly under Prime Minister (Madar-ul-Mihams): Finance, Postal, and Military.

·        Administration Structure: 14 departments under Prime Minister (also called Diwan or Regent).

Zilabandi System (1865): Introduced to divide the Diwani territory into districts for revenue and judicial purposes.

• Nizam: Afzal-ud-daula.
• British Resident: George Yule.

District Categorization:

·        Primary Category: Income > ₹12,00,000.

·        Secondary Category: Up to ₹10,00,000.

·        Tertiary Category: Up to ₹8,00,000.

Land Tax Systems:

1.      Battai System: Tax collected in crop produce, abolished by Salar Jung.

2.      Ryotwari System: Farmers directly paid land tax in currency to the government.

Key Developments:

·        Revenue Board Abolished (1867): Replaced by Sadar Mahake-i-Malgujari (Central Revenue Board).

·        Officers: Muhtamim and Ruknu.

·        Police Department Separated (1867): From revenue administration.

·        Central Inam Institute (1875): Established to manage Inam lands.

·        Land Revenue Survey Department (1875): Established for land boundary demarcation and survey.

·        Land Measurement Standard: Used Bigha (6/6 chain), equivalent to 10 yards for land measurement, still used today in Telangana.

·        Darul Uloom School (1855): Established as a western educational institution in Hyderabad. Mediums of instruction: Persian, Arabic, Urdu, and English.

·        City High School & Engineering Colleges (1870): Introduced for advanced education.

·        Chaderghat School (1872): Prominent educational institution in Hyderabad.

·        Madrasa-e Aliya (1873): Founded for noble children.

·        Madrasa-e-Aizza (1878): Established for royal family children.

·        Hyderabad College (1880): Combined Chaderghat English High School and School of Engineering.

·        Gloria Girls High School (1881): First Girls’ School in Hyderabad.

·        Islamia School (1882): Founded by Syed Hussain Bilgrami, First Muslim girls’ school in India.

·        Mahabubia College (1884): Established in Secunderabad for higher education.

·        Support for Aligarh Educational Institutions: Salar Jung financially supported Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in establishing Aligarh institutions.

·        Educational Supervision: Muhtamims Talimat were appointed to oversee the educational department.

·        W.H. Wilkinson (1869): Appointed as Secretary of the educational department, introduced modern educational methods.

·        Khangi Schools: Private schools during the Nizam’s period were known as Khangi’s.

·       1869: Mutilation of arms as punishment abolished by Salar Jung.

·       1872: Creation of Mahkama-e-murafa-e-Azla, a court of appeal for civil and criminal cases from districts and cities.

·       Supreme Court established as Majlis–e–Murafa with Nazim as Chief Justice.

·       Mahkama–i–Sadar established for Surveillance on District officials.

·       Majlis Aliyah Adalat: High court for civil administration in Hyderabad.

Police Reforms

·       SP (Superintendent of Police) appointed for each district.

·       Inspector appointed for every two taluks.

·       Large number of police constables and Sowers appointed.

·       Head of Police Department: Mahkama-e-Kotwal.

·       Police Station: Chowki.

·       Chowkidar equivalent to Sub-Inspector (S.I).

·       Amin was the Taluq Police Officer (Inspector).

·       Muhtamim was the District Police Officer (SP).

·       Head of Muhtamims: Nayab Sadar Muhtamim (DIG).

·       Jamedar/Daftadar: Equivalent to Head Constable.

Public Works:

·        Late 19th-century: Nizam’s government began irrigation projects under the Public Works Department.

·        Focus: Preservation of tanks, wells, channels for minor irrigation.

·        Mir Osman Ali Khan’s reign (1920s): Major irrigation projects.

·        Ghanpur Anicut on Manjira River (1904).

·        Nizamsagar Dam: Largest project, started in 1923.

·        Wyara and Palair projects (Warangal) completed in 1927.

·        Projects safeguarded against famine and increased farmers’ income

·        Nizam State Railway (1869): Established to enhance transportation.

·        First Railway Line (1870-1874): Constructed from Wadi to Secunderabad, completed in 1874.

·        Secunderabad Railway Station (1874): Established; part of the Nizam’s Guaranteed State Railway.

·        Buckingham Canal (1877): Engraved by the British for enhanced inland transport.

·        Deccan Times (1864): Hyderabad’s first English newspaper.

·        Government Printing Press (1867): Set up for official publications.

·        Telephone Facility (1885): Introduced for communication in Hyderabad.

Other Reforms

·       1867: Forest Department established.

·       1876: Firani factory formed.

·       1864: Military Department & Political Department established.

·       1875: Daftar-e-Najma Jamiyath (military management office) started.

·       1867: Income Tax Department established.

·       1886: Medical Department established.

·       1874: Sati practice abolished in Hyderabad State.

·       8th February, 1883: Salar Jung I died due to cholera.

·       Wahid Khan praised Salar Jung as a great administrator.

·       Dighton: Salar Jung was an analyst, not an administrator.

·       William Digby: Salar Jung reconstructed Nizam’s political system.

Caste System:

·       Society divided into Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.

·       Brahmins held the highest status, engaged in administration and religious practices.

·       Kshatriyas were involved in administration and were from different lineages.

·       Vaishyas focused on trade, commerce, and money-lending.

·       Shudras were the majority, involved in agriculture and traditional occupations.

Tribes:

·       Important tribes: Lambadi/ Banjaras, Erkalas, Chenchus, Gonds, Koyas, Konda Reddis.

Muslim Groups:

·       Distinct Muslim groups: Iranians, Turanians, Turks, Arabs, Rohillas, Pathans.

·       Divided into Shia and Sunni sects.

·       Foreign-origin Muslims: Afakies; Local Muslims: Deccanis.

Social Hierarchy:

·       Nizam was the highest authority, followed by Paigah Nobles, Jagirdars, Deshmukhs, Deshpandeys, Patels, Patwaris.

·       Upper class lived luxuriously; lower classes lived simply.

Social Evils:

Vettichakiri:

Forced labor by washermen, barbers, potters, and backward classes for jagirdars.

·       Vetti System: Forced labor without pay in Telangana during the Nizam period.

·       Affected Classes: Harijans, Boyas, Bestas, Rajakas, and backward classes forced to serve landlords and officials.

·       Forms of Labor: Unpaid household work, carrying reports, and forced services like toddy supply, palanquin bearing.

·       Exploitation: Slave girls, unpaid cobblers, and women forced into labor camps.

·       Resistance: Telangana armed struggle (1946) against Visunuri Rafnachandra Reddy; demand for abolition at various Andhra Mahasabha meetings.

·       Key Figures: K.V. Ranga Reddy, Madiraju Ramakotewara Rao, Mir Osman Ali Khan issued a farman in 1923 (not implemented).

·       Literary Works: Descriptions in Pajala Manishi, Gangu, Chillara Devullu.

Abolition: Achieved through the Naxalite movement and Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976.

·       Begar: Unpaid labor system in villages and cities; Nawab Ntiyaz Jung highlighted the exploitation. Abolished in 1948 after Indian annexation.

·       Polygyny: Muslim Sharia allowed four wives, influencing Hindus in upper classes to practice polygyny. Reduced in the 20th century through social reforms.

·       Dowry and Kanyashulkam: Dowry was widespread, especially among Reddy and Velama castes, while Kanyashulkam was the price paid to the bride’s family.

·       Aadapapa: Slave girls assigned to bride daughters, serving as concubines in landlords’ homes, practiced by Jagirdars and Zamindars.

·       Courtesans (Tawaifs): Entertainers for nawabs and nobility. Maintained by Asaf Jahis with monthly salaries; also led to prostitution.

·       Purdah System: Introduced by Muslims and Rajputs, extended to noble Hindu families during Qutb Shahi and Asaf Jahi periods.

·       Jogini System: Women dedicated to gods, prevalent in Veerashaiva sect.

·       Originated during Rashtrakuta and Chalukya rule (7th-9th centuries AD).

·       Strengthened under Kakatiya and Hoysala rule (9th-13th centuries AD).

·       Associated with Dalit women; involved exploitation under guise of religion.

·       Mentioned in Jogimara inscription (3rd century AD) and French missionary’s book.

·       Amrapali was a famous Nagara Vadhu from the Mauryan period.

·       Khammam district had no Jogini system.

·       Hemalatha Layanam researched the system in Telangana.

Treaty of Subsidiary Alliance: Nizam signed in 1800 with East India Company, leading to anti-British uprisings until 1857.

·        Rebellions led by Raja Mahipat Ram, Mubarez-ud-Dowlah, Maulvi Alauddin, Turrebaz Khan.

·        Revolts occurred in Aurangabad, Udgir, Nizamabad, Raichur, Karimnagar.

·        Sepoys in Hyderabad Residency (1812) mutinied against their British officers, tied Major Edward Gordon to a cannon.

·        1857 Revolt: Indian sepoys of Nizam’s army and Subsidiary Troops revolted at Buldhana, led by Jamedar Cheeda Khan.

·        Cheeda Khan arrested by Salar Jung I, Nizam’s minister, handed over to British.

·        June 13, 1857: Inflammatory placards called for uprising, urging Nizam to lead against British.

·        July 17, 1857: Turrebaz Khan and Maulvi Alauddin led 5,000 rebels attacking Hyderabad Residency.

·        Rebels, including 500 Rohillas, launched assault but were defeated by British forces led by Major S.C. Briggs with artillery.

·        Turrebaz Khan escaped but was later captured and killed by British forces in Toopran.

·        Maulvi Alauddin was deported to Andaman and died in 1884.

·        Nizam Afzal-ud-Daula and Salar Jung I supported British, earning praise from East India Company.

·        Turrebaz Khan sentenced to life, escaped in 1859, but was shot dead by British soldiers on January 24, 1859. His body was hanged publicly in Hyderabad.

·        Role in 1857 Uprising: Pathan Turrebaz Khan, a Rohilla military leader and Jamedar in the British Cantonment of Aurangabad, led the 1857 revolt in Hyderabad with Maulvi Allaudin.

·        Attack on British Residency: On 17 July 1857, Turrebaz led 5,000 rebels to attack the British Residency in Hyderabad, aiming to free Jamedar Cheeda Khan.

·        Capture and Escape: He was captured by British-Nizam forces on 22 July 1857 and sentenced to life imprisonment in Kala-Pani, but escaped on 18 January 1859.

·        Bounty: The Nizam’s government placed a 5,000 rupee reward on him. He continued resistance but was betrayed by Kurban Ali.

·        Death: Captured in Tufran village (Medak district) on 24 January 1859, he was shot dead. His body was displayed in Hyderabad at Sultan Bazar Police Station.

·        Memorials: In 1957, a stupa was built at Koti Bus Stand in his honor. A granite pillar with elephant statues also commemorates him.

Cultural Conditions in Hyderabad under Nizams:

1.      Ganga-Jamuna Tehzeeb:

o   Hyderabad had a unique culture blending various religions, languages, and traditions.

o   Muslim rulers and Hindu subjects coexisted harmoniously, celebrating festivals together without communal bias.

2.      Religious and Cultural Synthesis:

o   Indo-Islamic art and architecture reflected the synthesis of Hindu and Iranian Islamic cultures, seen in paintings and structures.

3.      Composite and Cosmopolitan Culture:

o   Languages: Urdu, Telugu, Marathi, Persian, Kannada were widely spoken.

o   Hyderabadi Urdu/Deccaniboli was known for its humor.

o   Hindi and English were also common due to the cosmopolitan nature of the city.

4.      Education:

o   Urdu was the medium of instruction in schools and universities, contributing to the educational backwardness of Telugu people.

o   Literacy rate: 4.8% in Hyderabad State; 3.3% among Telugu people.

o   Salar Jung’s reforms slightly improved literacy.

5.      Performing Arts:

o   Music, Qawwali, Kuchipudi, Dramas, and Calligraphy were popular.

o   Shadow puppetry using leather puppets was a notable traditional art form.

6.      Hyderabad Paintings:

o   Known for vivid colors, gold decorations, arabesque designs, and gorgeous costumes.

o   Large-size paintings on cotton cloth were a remarkable feature of Deccan art.

·        Birth & Ascension: Born in 1866, became Nizam at age 3 under regency of Diwan Salar Jung-I and Shams-ul-Umra.

·        Official Responsibilities: Took over the kingdom on 5th February 1884 in Chowmahalla Palace, attended by Lord Rippon (first viceroy to visit Hyderabad).

·        Titles: Received Star of India title in 1885, known as Rang Rangeela Raja, Little Fellow, and Mahbub Ali Shah.

·        Qanuncha-i-Mubarak (1892): Introduced reforms; Cabinet Council and Legislative Council formed for administrative and legal decisions.

·        Rural Local Bodies: Issued Dastar-ul-Amal Act (1888), also called Local Fund Rules Act.

Notable Events during 6th Nizam’s Reign:

1.      Chanda Railway Scheme Agitation (1883):

o   First public agitation led by Aghore Nath Chattopadhyay, Mulla Abdul Qayyum, and Houshagi Hoshung against the construction of a railway line for coal transportation from Chanda.

2.      Mulki Agitation (1888):

o   First demand for Mulki Rights led by Lawyer Kishan Rao for locals in government jobs.

3.      Berar Permanent Treaty (1902):

o   Signed with Lord Curzon; George Cason Walker became finance minister and Hakkins as Inspector General of Police.

4.      Great Musi Floods (1908):

o   Massive floods on 28th September 1908, killing 20,000 people; M. Visvesvarayya was appointed to recommend flood prevention measures.

Industries & Infrastructure:

·        Hyderabad Deccan Spinning Mills (1877), Mahbubani Gulbarga Mills (1884), and Aurangabad Mills (1888) were established.

·        Godavari Valley Railway (1899) connected Hyderabad to Manmad, promoting cotton industries.

Important Figures:

·        Diwan Salar Jung II: Changed official language from Persian to Urdu in 1884.

·        Kishan Pershad: Diwan from 1900-1912, organized Mushaira, and published the Nizam’s poems.

·        Constructions during Mahboob Ali Khan (6th Nizam)

Falaknuma Palace:

·        Built by Sir Viqar-ul-umra.

·        Constructed in scorpion shape in Andrea Palladian style.

·        Construction started in 1884, completed in 1893.

·        Architect: William Ward Maret.

·        Materials: Italian marble and English wood.

·        Meaning: “Mirror of the Sky” (Urdu).

Town Hall:

·        Foundation stone laid by 6th Nizam in 1905.

·        Completed by 7th Nizam in 1913.

·        Current use: State Assembly Building.

·        Style: Saracenic-Rajasthani, known as the White Gem of Hyderabad.

Bella Vista Palace:

·        Built in 1905 by Chief Justice Muslehuddin Mohammed.

·        Meaning: “Beautiful Sight”.

·        Present use: Administrative Staff College of India.

Victoria Memorial Orphanage:

·        Constructed in memory of Queen Victoria in 1905 at Saroornagar.

·        Renamed Victoria Memorial Home in 1953 by Jawaharlal Nehru.

Victoria Zanana Hospital:

·        Built during Prince of Wales’ visit to Hyderabad.

·        Nampally Railway Station:

·        Built by Nizam in 1907, also known as Hyderabad Deccan Railway Station.

·        First passenger train in 1921.

Kachiguda Railway Station:

·        Built in 1916 in Gothic style during 7th Nizam’s period.

Nizamia Observatory:

·        Established in 1908 by Nawab Zafar Jung, the 3rd observatory in India.

Key Incidents during 6th Nizam’s Period:

·        1884: Official language changed to Urdu by Mir Laiq Ali.

·        Schools for Girls: Darmawan High School, Keys High School.

·        1884: Syed Hussain Bilgrami appointed as Director of Public Instructions.

·        1888: Chloroform Commission established; Rupabai Furdoonji as member.

·        1891: Asafia Library (Afzalgunj) established.

·        1901: Daagh Dehlvi appointed as the 1st court poet, followed by Jaleel Manikpuri.

·        Sir Ronald Ross:Conducted Malaria research in 1897 at Begumpet, Secunderabad.

Titles & Personal Details:

·        Known as architect of Modern Hyderabad.

·        Born on 6th April 1886 to Mir Mahboob Ali Khan and Zahrunnisa Begum.

·        Ascended the throne on 29th August 1911 and took oath on 18th September 1911.

·        Titles: His Exalted Highness, Star of India, Sultanul Ulum, Rustam-i-Dauram, Muzaffar-ul-Malikh, Mohiyuddin-al-millat.

·        World’s richest person as per Times Magazine (1937).

·        Used Jacob diamond as paperweight.

·        Gifted “Tiara” diamond necklace to Queen Elizabeth II in 1947.

Family:

·        Wives: Dulhan Pasha Begum (1st wife).

·        Sons: Mir Himayat Ali Khan (Azam Jah), Mir Shujath Ali Khan (Moazzam Jah).

·        Himayath Sagar and Moazzam Jahi Market constructed in their names.

·        Grandson: Mukarram Jah, became 8th Nizam in 1967.

Key Reforms & Contributions:

Governance & Legal Reforms:

• Ruled directly (1914-1919) without a Diwan.
• Formed Executive Council and separated Legislature from Judiciary in 1922.
• Introduced Mulki protection laws (1919), Abolished death sentence, Stopped cow slaughter (1921), and Prohibited smoking in courts.
• Established Constitutional Reform Committee (1937).

Irrigation Projects:

1. Osman Sagar (1920): Constructed on Musi River.
2. Himayath Sagar (1927): Built on Esi River.
3. Pocharam Reservoir (1922).
4. Nizam Sagar (1923-31): Built on Manjira River.
5. Wyra Reservoir (1923-30).
6. Paleru Project (1924-29).
7. Rajampalli Project (1924).
8. Singabhupalem Reservoir (1919-40).
9. Ali Sagar Dam (1931).
10. Dindi Project (1943).

Protection of Monuments:

• Focused on Ajanta, Ellora caves, Thousand Pillar Temple, Ramappa Temple.
• Allotted Rs. 30 lakh for Ajanta caves research.

Education:

• Osmania University established in 1917 with Urdu as the medium.
• Founded several schools including Koti Women’s College (1924), Warangal College (1930).
• Promoted education for Dalits and women.
• Round Table Conference (1931): Praised for Dalit education by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

Industrial Development:

• Established Commerce & Industries Department (1918).
• Industrial Trust Fund (1929): Supported small industries.
• Key industries: Singareni Collieries (1920), Charminar Cigarettes (1925), Shahabad Cement Factory (1925), Azam Jahi Mills (1934), Nizam Sugar Factory (1937).

Transportation:

• Nizam State Road Transport Department (1932).
• Started first double-decker buses in India (1940).
• Founded Deccan Airways (1945) in collaboration with Tata.

Key Constructions:

1. Osmania University: Foundation laid in 1923, opened 1939.
2. Falaknuma Palace: Built in 1884-1893.
3. Nampally Railway Station (1907), Kachiguda Railway Station (1916).
4. High Court (1920): Built with Indo-Saracenic architecture.
5. Osmania General Hospital (1925).
6. Moazzam Jahi Market (1935).
7. King Koti Palace: Official residence of the Nizam.
8. State Museum (1930): Originally Dolls House.

1. Nizam-Ul-Mulk (Mir Qamruddin Chin Qillich Khan) (1724-1748):

• Founder of Asaf Jahi dynasty.
• Ancestors from Samarkhand; served under Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.
• Mansabdar at 6 years old; became viceroy of Awadh.
• Nizam-Ul-Mulk title bestowed by Farukh Siyar; AsafJah by Muhammad Shah.
• Practically independent ruler of Deccan, accepted nominal Mughal authority.
• Defeated by Peshwa Baji Rao in Phalkhed and Bhopal.
• Allowed Marathas to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.
• Mediated during Nadir Shah’s invasion (1738).
• Expanded Deccan territories.
• Poet in Persian and Turkish; promoted Urdu scholars.
• Died in 1748 at age 76.
• Civil war followed between Nasir Jung, Mujaffar Jung, and Salabat Jung.

2. Nizam Ali Khan (1762-1803):

• Fourth son of Nizam-Ul-Mulk, first to use title Nizam.
• Saved Asaf Jahi dynasty from external and internal threats.
• Shifted capital from Aurangabad to Hyderabad (1763).
• Signed the Subsidiary Alliance Treaty with the British.
• Ceded Kadapa, Kurnool, Bellary, and Ananthapur to the British.
• Strengthened state administration; participated in Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805).

3. Sikandar Jah (1803-1829):

• Second son of Nizam Ali Khan.
• Secunderabad city built in his name (1806).
• Created Russell Brigade, leading to severe financial crisis.
• Incurred debts through Palmer and Palmer Company.

4. Nasir-Ud-Daula (1829-1857):

• Eldest son of Sikandar Jah; inherited a financially weak state.
• Faced natural disasters like floods, droughts, and epidemics.
• Signed Treaty of Berar (1853), ceding Osmanabad and Raichur.
• Banned Sati (1856).
• Assisted by Diwan Salar Jung I in modernizing the state’s finances.
• Wahabi movement spread during his tenure.
• Died in 1857.

• Son of Nasir-Ud-Daula.
• Supported the British during the 1857 Revolt; suppressed revolt with Salar Jung I.
• Queen Victoria awarded Grand Commander Star of India (1861).
• Contributed to railway development; laid Bombay-Madras railway line through Hyderabad.
• Constructed Afzalgunz Mosque and Afzalgunj Bridge

6. Mir Mahboob Ali Khan (1869-1911):

• Became Nizam at 3 years old; regency under Salar Jung I.
• Reformed administration, established Asafia Library (1891), Nizam College, and Mahaboobia Girls School.
• Received Grand Commander Star of India (1885) from Queen Victoria.
• Died at age 46.

7. Mir Osman Ali Khan (1911-1948):

• Last Nizam, known as the architect of modern Hyderabad.
• Born 6th April 1886; ascended throne in 1911.
• Introduced key reforms and projects: Osmania University (1917), High Court, Osmania Medical College.
• Osman Sagar (1920) and Himayath Sagar (1927) were major irrigation projects.
• Known for religious tolerance and provided funds to Hindu temples.
• Hyderabad merged into Indian Union (1948) after Police Action.
• Recognized as world’s richest man (1937) by Time magazine.

Key Events:

• Carnatic Wars (1748-1762): Internal succession conflicts after Nizam-Ul-Mulk’s death.
• Subsidiary Alliance Treaty: Signed by Nizam Ali Khan with the British.
• Treaty of Berar (1853): Nasir-Ud-Daula ceded territories to the British.
• 1857 Revolt: Afzal-Ud-Daula supported British suppression.
• Police Action (1948): Hyderabad merged with Indian Union.

• Salar Jung I’s Diwanship: Led reforms in socio-economic, cultural, and administrative fields.
• Agricultural reforms: Commercialisation of crops, cotton in Marathwada, oil seeds in Telangana.
• Establishment of Public Works Department (PWD) for irrigation facilities.
• Key developments:

o   Hyderabad-Godavari Valley-Manmad railway (1899).

o   Major industries: Hyderabad Deccan Spinning and Weaving Mills (1877), Mahaboob Shahi Gulbarga Mills (1884), Aurangabad Mills (1888).

o   Singareni coal transport aided by Dornakal-Singareni railway.

Second Phase (1919-1939):

• Nizam government provided institutional support.
• Establishments:

o   Industrial Laboratory (1917) for research.

o   Commerce and Industries Department (CID) (1918).

o   Industrial Trust Fund (1929): ₹1 crore corpus, raised to ₹3 crore later.

o   Support for large-scale industries, artisan markets, and Cottage Industries Institute (CII).

• Nizam State Railways, hydroelectric power from Nizam Sagar Canal, and coal production increased.
• Industrial establishments rose to 387 (1931).
• Key industries:

o   Sugar Factory in Bodhan, largest in Asia at the time.

o   D.B.R. Mills (1920).

Third Phase (1939-1948):

• Singareni Collieries Company (1921): Coal mining in Khammam.
• Key industries:

o   Allwyn Metal Works (1942), Praga Tools (1943), Sirpur Paper Mills (1946).

o   Hyderabad Asbestos (1946), Vazir Sultan Tobacco (VST) (shifted to Mushirabad-Azamabad in 1930).

o   Karkhana Zinda Tilismath (1920), Azam Jahi Mills (1934), Deccan Airways (1945).

• State Bank of Hyderabad (1941): Managed Osmania sicca currency.
• Hyderabadi rupee introduced in 1918, exclusive to Hyderabad State.

Theme 2 :    Social Reform Movements -Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj and Adi- Hindu and Dalit Movements, Role of Bhagyareddy Varma- Andhra Mahila Sabha and the growth of Women’s Movement.

Theme 3:     Role of Hyderabad State Congress and Vandemataram Movement

·        Leaders: Aghoranath Chattopadhyaya, Mulla Abdul Khayyum.

·        Objective: Opposed the Railway Scheme for being against the interests of Hyderabad State.

·        Demand: Requested the government to disclose the scheme’s details.

·        Despite the protest, the scheme was implemented, marking the first step toward Swadeshi policy.

Arya Samaj Movement: Key Points

Andhra Saraswatha Parishad (1943):

·        Origin: Established on 26 May 1943 at Golconda Patrika office, Hyderabad. Aimed at developing Telugu language after Andhra Mahasabha became political.

·        Founders:

o   Devulapali Ramanuja Rao (Father of Andhra Saraswatha Parishad)

o   Lokanandi, Rangamma, Obul Reddy.

·        First President: Lokanandi Shankar Narayana Rao.

·        First Secretary: Venkatereddy Seshaiah.

·        Second President: Suravaram Pratapa Reddy.

·        Current President: Yendluri Shiva Reddy.

·        Magazine: Published Andhra Sri in 1944.

·        First Annual Meeting: Held at Warangal.

Notable Books Published:

1.      Andhra Vangmaya Charitra – Diwakarla Venkata Avadhani.

2.      Saraswatha Muktavali – Burgula Ramakrishna Rao.

3.      Salivahana Gatha Sapthasathi Saaram – Rallapalli Anantha Krishna Sharma.

4.      Andhrula Charitra – Nelakuri Venkata Ramanaiah.

Important Speeches:

1. Andhra Mahabharata Upanyasam.
2. Maha Bhagavatam Upanyasam.
3. Andhra Sapthaham.

Functions:

·        Promotion of libraries and Telugu medium schools.

·        Conducting essay and elocution competitions in Telugu.

·        Felicitating Telugu poets and writers.

Notable Publications:

·        Pandit Sarasaswatam, Praja Sarasaswatam, Bala Sarasaswatam.

Books under Pandit Saraswati:

·        Kavyalankara Sangraham – Suryanarayana Reddy Shastri.

·        Salivahana Gatha Saptasathi Saaramu – Rallapalli Anantha Krishna Shastri.

·        Saraswatha Vyasa Muktavali – Burgula Ramakrishna Rao.

·        Sahitya Sopaanaalu – Diwakarla Venkata Avadhani.

Prominent Leaders:

·       Key figures included Komarraju Laxman Rao, Ravichettu Ranga Rao, Gadicherla Harisarvotham Rao, and Munagala Raja Venkata Narasinga Rao.

·       They played a significant role in promoting Telugu language and fostering a cultural revival.

Founding of Libraries:

·       Sri Krishna Devaraya Andhra Bhasha Nilayam: The first Telugu library, established in 1901 due to the efforts of Komarraju Laxman Rao.

·       Vignana Chandrika Mandali: Founded in 1906 to promote Telugu publications on science, literature, and history.

·       Additional libraries like Sri Raja Raja Narendra Bhasha Nilayam (1904) in Hanmakonda and Andhra Samvardhini Library (1905) in Secunderabad were established.

Cultural Revival:

·       These libraries and associations forged cultural links between Andhra and Telangana, promoting Telugu literature and knowledge sharing.

·       Leaders aimed to build strong connections between the Telugu-speaking people of Telangana and Andhra regions.

Role of Newspapers:

·       Newspapers such as ‘Hyderabad Record,’ ‘Nilagir Patrika,’ and ‘Telugu Pathrika’ played crucial roles in awakening political consciousness and promoting cultural awareness among the people of Hyderabad.

Contributions:

• The libraries movement in Telangana created a renaissance in Telugu language, promoting cultural and literary growth, and fostering regional unity through knowledge and education.

Libraries in Hyderabad State

Nagai Village Library (1058 AD):

·        Established by Chalukya King Prathama Shekar near Wadi Railway Station.

Secunderabad Library (1872):

·        Founded by Somasundar Mudaliar, first library in Hyderabad and Telugu-speaking areas.

·        Merged into Mahboobia College in 1884.

Shankarananda Library (1872) – Secunderabad:

·        Founded by Mudigonda Shankaracharyulu, key figure in the Telugu library movement.

·        Founded Sri Saiva Maha Sabha in 1920.

Aghoranatha Chatopadhyaya (1879):

·        Founded a library under Young Men Improvement Society.

·        Established the Brotherhood Society with Mulla Abdul Khayyum.

Asafia State Library (1892):

·        Initially a civic library, renamed Asafia State Library by the Nizam.

·        Added regional languages by 1940, now the State Central Library (Afzal Gunj).

Bharat Gunavardhan Association Library (1895):

·        Started by the Marathi community in Shalibanda, led by Sri Gopal Rao.

Albert Reading Room (1896):

·        Set up at Bollaram, furthering cultural growth.

Formation:

·       Formed on 12th November 1921 during the Nizam’s State Social Reforms Conference in Hyderabad.

·       Telugu delegate Allampalli Venkatarama Rao faced resistance while moving a resolution in Telugu.

·       Maharashtrian section vociferously opposed it, leading to the formation of Andhra Jana Sangham that night.

Initial Members:

·       Started with 12 members.

·       Grew rapidly to 100 members.

First Meeting:

·       Held on 14th February 1922 in Hyderabad.

·       Chaired by Konda Venkata Ranga Reddy.

·       Name changed to Nizam’s State Andhra Jana Sangham.

·       Madapati Hanumantha Rao became a guiding figure for the movement.

Objectives:

·       Focused on social, economic, and cultural revival of Telugu people in Telangana.

·       Established Telugu libraries, reading rooms, private schools.

·       Encouraged the writing of books on Andhra history.

Support:

·       Newspapers like Nilagiri Patrika, Telugu Patrika, and Golconda Patrika supported the cause.

Library Movement:

·       First library conference held at Madhira (1925).

·       Andhra Jana Sangham promoted women’s education; Andhra Balika High School started in 1928.

Challenges:

·       Osmania University initially refused to recognize Telugu-medium students, as its policy considered Urdu as the mother tongue.

·       Maharshi Karve helped Andhra Jana Sangham, enabling the first batch of Telugu-medium girl students to appear for matriculation exams at Karve Institute in 1934.

Andhra Mahasabha:

·       In 1930 at Jogipet Conference, Andhra Jana Sangham became Andhra Mahasabha.

·       Nizam Government objected to the use of the word Andhra, but Telangana leaders firmly retained it despite pressure.

Formation:

·        1930, leaders from various sections united to form Andhra Maha Sabha (AMS), initially focusing on educational facilities.

·        Key leaders included Unnava Venkataramaiah, Madapati Hanmantha Rao, Suravaram Pratap Reddy, Ravi Narayana Reddy, and T. Anantha Venkat Rao.

Objectives:

·        Eradication of social evils like the Parda system, promotion of female education, and ban on child marriages.

·        Abolition of Vetti (forced labor) and establishment of private scholars for regional languages (other than Urdu).

·        Advocated for responsible government and establishment of village libraries to spread awareness.

Conferences:

·        AMS held 13 conferences across different regions of Telangana, supported by landlords and local elites.

·        Parallel to the AMS conferences, Andhra Mahila Conferences were held between 1930-1942.

Key Conferences:

·        First Conference (1925): Focus on spreading library movement.

·        Second Conference (1931, Devarakonda): Addressed in Telugu, led by B. Ramakrishna Rao.

·        Third Conference (1934, Khammam): Led by Pulijala Venkata Ranga Rao, despite government restrictions.

·        Fourth Conference (1935, Sircilla): Madapati Hanmantha Rao chaired; Manikyamba presided over Andhra Mahila Sabha.

·        Fifth Conference (1936, Shadnagar): Chaired by Konda Venkata Ranga Reddy.

·        Sixth Conference (1937, Nizamabad): Chaired by Mandumula Narsinga Rao, discussed agricultural loans.

·        Seventh Conference (1940, Warangal): Led by Mandumula Ramachandra Rao.

·        Eighth Conference (1941, Chilkur): Chaired by Ravi Narayana Reddy, saw Communists gaining control.

·        Ninth Conference (1942, Dharmavaram): Madiraju Ramakoteshwer Rao chaired; Communists distanced themselves.

Communist Influence:

·        Eighth Conference (1941): AMS came under Communist control after Ravi Narayana Reddy‘s leadership.

·        Tenth Conference (1943, Hyderabad): Contested by Baddam Yella Reddy (Communist) and Konda Venkat Ranga Reddy (moderate); Ranga Reddy won.

Decline:

·        By 1945, AMS had split into moderates and Communists.

·        Thirteenth Conference (1946, Kandi, Medak): Final meeting, chaired by Jamalapuram Keshava Rao.

·        Post-1946, AMS merged with the Hyderabad State Congress, and the Communist faction continued separately under the Communist Party.

Communist Party Ban:

Key Leaders:

·        Keshavrao Koratkar, Damodar Satwalekar, and Dr. Agoranath Chattopadhyaya were prominent leaders promoting Swadeshi and nationalist ideas in Hyderabad State.

Cultural Revival:

·        Arya Samaj established in Hyderabad (1892), marking the beginning of a cultural and social revival.

·        Organized Ganesh festivals (1895), following Bala Gangadhar Tilak’s lead in Maharashtra, to spread nationalism.

Educational Initiatives:

·        Vivekavardhani Patasala (1906) founded by Keshav Rao Koratkar and others, later becoming the Vivekvardhini Educational Society.

·        Nutan Vidyalaya (1907) started by Vithal Rao Deulgaonkar, Keshav Rao Koratkar, and Garuda Rao in Gulbarga, playing a crucial role in spreading education in the Karnataka region.

Movement’s Role:

·        Arya Samaj worked to revive Vedic religion, promote Hindu unity, and encourage reconversion of people who had converted to other religions.

·        Pandit Keshava Rao Koratkar served as President of Hyderabad Arya Samaj until 1932.

·        Translated Satyartha Prakash into Telugu (1921).

Government Restrictions:

·        In 1934, the Nizam’s government imposed strict regulations on Arya Samaj’s activities, leading to restrictions on public programs.

·        In 1935, the Urdu weekly ‘Vedic Adarsh’ published by Arya Samaj was banned.

Constructive Programs:

·        Pandit Keshava Rao Memorial School was inaugurated on 20th July 1940.

·        Arya Samaj actively supported Hindus during the Razakar violence (1947-48) by setting up refugee camps in border cities like Sholapur, Pandarpur, Bijapur, Vijayawada, and others.

Main Contributions of Arya Samaj:

·        Spread nationalist ideas, promoted cultural revival, and protected Hindu rights.

·        Played a pivotal role in awakening political consciousness and challenging the Nizam’s oppressive rule in Hyderabad State.

Founded:

·        1828 by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in Calcutta.

Hyderabad Branch:

·         Established in 1869, first meeting in 1914 at Sultan Bazar.

Key Figures:

·        Narayana Govinda Vellinkar (Hyderabad), Raghupati Venkataratnam Naidu (Andhra).

Beliefs:

o   Rejected Vedas, avatars, karma, and samsara.

o   No idol worship; adopted some Christian practices.

o   Advocated religious unity, denounced caste system.

Leaders:

Debendranath Tagore, Keshub Chandra Sen, Rabindranath Tagore.

Split in 1866:

·        Brahmo Samaj of India by Keshub Chandra Sen.

·        Adi Brahmo Samaj by Debendranath Tagore.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833):

·        Born: Radhanagar, Bengal.

·        Languages: Fluent in Bangla, Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, Hindi, English.

·        Career: Worked in the East India Company; later became a social reformer.

·        Reforms: Advocated against idol worship, social inequality, and for religious unity.

·        Death: 1833 in Bristol, England.

·        Title ‘Raja’: Granted by Mughal Emperor Akbar II.

Founder: Madari Bhagya Reddy Varma (Born May 22, 1888, Hyderabad) was the pioneer of the Adi Hindu Movement, aimed at fighting untouchability and caste discrimination.

Early Life: Left home in childhood, worked in various jobs. Became an Electrical Engineer in 1912 and founded Jagan Mitra Mandali (1906) to promote Dalit education.

Social Reforms:

·       1910: Founded Vaidika Dharma Pracharam Sabha for religious and moral awareness among Dalits.

·       1913: Received the title “Varma” from Arya Samajist Baji Krishna Rao for social service.

·       Swastika Volunteer Corps (1912): Aimed to serve Dalits and raise awareness.

Key Organizations:

·       1913: Established Adi Hindu Social Service League for social enlightenment through public lectures, Harikathas, and literature on pre-Aryan culture.

·       Organized the first Buddha Jayanthi celebration in 1913, held annually until his death.

·        1917: Presided over the first Andhra Desa Panchama Conference and coined the term Adi Andhra to replace Panchama.

·        In 1925, founded Matangi Sabha to promote social reform, and Adi Hindu Sabha for Arundhatiyas.

Efforts for Dalit Solidarity:

·        Founded Yadava Sangham, Sabari Sangham, Pardhi Sangham, and Matanga Janasabha for various marginalized communities.

·        Demanded rights for Madigas and received support from Mudigonda Laxmaiah.

Government Influence:

·        His efforts led to GO 817 (1922), replacing Panchama with Adi Dravida/Adi Andhra in Madras and Hyderabad records. Nizam government accepted the term Adi Hindu in the 1931 Census.

Key Conferences and Involvement:

·        Participated in Andhra Maha Sabha meetings (1930, 1934) and national conferences like the All India Adi Hindu (Depressed Classes) Conference.

·        Attended Divyajnana Samajam Conference (1917, Calcutta), praised by Mahatma Gandhi.

Legacy:

·        Delivered over 3348 public speeches. Passed away on February 18, 1939, leaving a profound impact on the Adi Hindu Movement and Dalit empowerment in Hyderabad.

·        Founded: 1930, alongside Andhra Maha Sabha.

·        Key Leaders: Nadimpalli Sundaramma, Tanguturi Varalakshmamma, Yellapragada Sithakumari, Madapati Manikyamba, Burgula Ananta Laxmidevi, Rangamma Obul Reddy.

·        Focus: Women’s welfare, education, widow remarriage, abolition of child marriage, purdah, and prostitution.

Notable Conference:

18th Andhra Mahila Sabha (1940) at Chilkur, led by Rangamma Obul Reddy, urged women to abandon purdah and fight against child marriage.

Social Reform: Nizam’s farman allowed widow remarriage.

Class Involvement: Primarily middle and upper-class women with a nationalist spirit.

Conflicts: Reformist ideas often clashed with conservative groups.

Associated Movements:

o   All India Women’s Conference (1945) under Prameela Tai.

o   Andhra Yuvati Mandali (1935), focused on women’s education.

o   Muslim Women’s Movements: Anjuman-e-Khavateen-e-Deccan by Suegra Humayun Mirza and Hyderabad Ladies Club by Lady Hyderi.

Student Involvement: All Hyderabad Students Union included women like Shakuntala, Susheela, and Padma.

Women in National Movement –

Gandhi’s Visit (1921):

·       Inspired Swadeshi efforts led by Padmaja Naidu.

·       Women took to Khadi promotion and fundraising.

Satyagraha Movement (1938):

Leaders: Sangam Lakshmi Bai, Baddam Yella Reddy, and Nanduri Krishnamachari.

Yellapragada Sita Kumari among women jailed for participation.

Quit India Movement (1942):

·       Women like Padmaja Naidu, Yellapragada Sita Kumari, and Sumithra Devi faced imprisonment.

Telangana Armed Struggle (1946-51):

·       Women like Chityala Ailamma, Ramulamma, and Mallu Swarajyam led peasant revolts and resisted Razakars.

Join India Movement (1947):

·       Women like Yashodabai and Birj Rani Goud hoisted the national flag and resisted Nizam’s orders.

·        Hyderabad Education Conference (1915): Initiated by Mir Akbar Ali, led to the foundation of Osmania University in 1918 by Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan.

·        Discriminatory System: Abliyakat system at Osmania University required Hindu students to study writings of other religions, but not Muslim students. Students were required to wear Islamic attire (blue sherwani and pajama).

·        Nizam’s Restrictions: The Nizam issued G.O. 53 (Gasti Nishan Thirpan), curbing freedom of speech and individual rights. Political meetings were conducted outside the Nizam’s state.

·        Vande Mataram Movement (1938): Triggered by the Nizam’s ban on singing Vande Mataram and imposition of compulsory prayers praising the Nizam. The movement started when Osmania University students defied the ban by singing Vande Mataram during Dussehra celebrations.

·        Student Protests: Protests expanded to Aurangabad, Warangal, Gulbarga, and other districts. Students boycotted classes, discarded sherwani and pajama, and demanded instruction in regional languages (Telugu, Marathi, Kannada).

·        Government Retaliation: 350 students from Osmania University, 200 from Gulbarga, and 500 from Aurangabad were expelled. The Nizam instructed other universities not to admit expelled students.

·        Support for Students: Despite some universities (like Andhra University and Banaras University) refusing admission, Nagpur University admitted expelled students. Leaders like Nehru, Patel, Bose, and Savarkar supported the students’ stand.

·        Gandhi’s Statement: Gandhiji declared that every Indian has the right to sing Vande Mataram.

·        Haripura Congress (1938): Under Subhash Chandra Bose, Congress decided not to intervene in princely states, leading to discontent in Hyderabad.

·        Regional Parishes: Marathi and Kannada Parishes were formed in 1937; Telugu leaders felt the need for a similar political organization.

·        January 1938 Meeting: Madapati Hanumantha Rao, Burgula, Vaman Nayak, and Ramananda Tirtha convened a meeting to protect the rights of people in the Nizam State.

·        Hyderabad State Congress Formation: Announced by Ramananda Tirtha on 29 July 1938, aimed at securing responsible government.

Key Leaders

·        Swami Ramananda Tirtha: Original name Venkatrao Khedgikar, born in Gulbarga, led Hyderabad State Congress (HSC).

·        Govindarao Nanal: Elected first president of HSC.

·        H. Ramakrishna Dhooth: Appointed convener of the provisional committee.

Key Events and Movements

·        Ban on HSC (8 September 1938): Issued by Prime Minister Akbar Hydari, declaring HSC unlawful.

·        Dhoolpet Riots (1938): Hindu-Muslim tensions; Mandumula Narsing Rao and Bahadur Yar Jung negotiated peace.

·        Satyagraha Movement (24 Oct – 24 Dec 1938): Led by Swami Ramananda Tirtha, resulted in 350 students expelled.

Further Developments

·        Kasinathrao Vaidya: Key figure in negotiations with Akbar Hydari; proposed renaming HSC to Hyderabad National Conference (rejected).

·        Hyderabad Day: First observed on 21 Jan 1939.

·        Quit India Movement (1942): Strong participation from HSC leaders, Padmaja Naidu, Burgula Ramakrishna Rao, Konda Lakshman Bapuji, etc.

Lift of Ban on HSC (3 July 1946)

·        Chattari Nawab advised the Nizam to lift the ban on HSC to counter Communist influence.

·        First HSC Meeting (16 June 1947): Held at Musheerabad, presided by Swami Ramananda Tirtha.

Prominent Figures

·        Padmaja Naidu: Active in the Quit India Movement, hoisted Congress flag in Hyderabad, later served as Governor of West Bengal.

·        Abid Hasan Safrani: Coined the slogan Jai Hind, participated in Azad Hind Fauz, served as Indian Ambassador.

Union with India

·        Hyderabad State Congress called for “Join Indian Union” Day on 7 August 1947, leading to mass arrests and Nizam’s opposition.

·        The crisis continued until the Indian Army annexed Hyderabad in September 1948, ending the Nizam’s rule.

Theme 2:     Struggle Telangana Peasants Armed Struggle – Role of Andhra Mahasabha and the Communists

Theme 3:     Integration of Hyderabad State into Indian Union.

·        Forest Dependency: Tribal life is deeply connected with forests, both economically and culturally.

·        Mid-19th Century: Government extended control over previously neglected areas, causing stress among landlords. Legislation was enacted to regulate forests and forest dwellers.

Forest Acts:

·        First Forest Act (1865): Regulated forest produce collection by forest dwellers.

·        Forest Act (1878): Increased state control, prohibited trespassing and cattle grazing, declared forest offenses.

·        Forest Policy (1894): First policy to regulate rights and restrict privileges of forest users.

·        Land Transfer Act (1917): Aimed to prevent land transfer between tribals and non-tribals in the Andhra region, reacting to tribal rebellions.

·        Nizam Government: Did not protect tribal land rights, allowing non-locals to occupy and register tribal lands.

Causes for the Tribal Movements –

·        1917 Land Transfer Act: Aimed to regulate rights over forest land and forest produce, affecting tribal rights.

·        Forest Department (1857): Established in Hyderabad during Salarjung-I’s tenure, followed by forest policies in 1890 and 1900.

·        Government Policies: Increased revenue for the government but cancelled traditional rights of tribals who had lived in forests for thousands of years.

·        Forest Division: Forests divided into reserved and unreserved areas, banning cultivation and forest produce collection in reserved areas.

·        Impact on Tribals: Significant changes in tribal life, especially Gonds of Adilabad district, who suffered from non-tribal interference and forest officer oppression.

·        Resistance: Tribal leaders like Ramji Gond and Kumram Bheem led movements against Nizam’s rule, aiming to protect tribal autonomy over forest areas.

·        Agriculture & Forest-Based: Most tribal revolts were related to agriculture and forest issues.

·        Main Oppressors: Local zamindars, moneylenders, non-local lower-level government officers were the main oppressors.

·        Exploitation: Tribal lands were taken when they couldn’t repay debts, forcing them into bonded labor, tenant farming, or as coolies on their own land.

·        Vetti System: Forced labor without remuneration imposed by police, revenue officers for personal and public works.

·        Forest Exploitation: Forest contractors, businessmen, and plain area residents illegally occupied tribal lands and resources.

·        Neglect by Courts: Legal systems failed to understand tribal problems, especially podu (shifting) cultivation.

·        Major Tribes Revolting: Tribes like Munda, Santhal, Kol, Bhil, Warli, Gond revolted in different regions, emerging as strong resistance forces.

Revolt of Ramji Gond (1857-60)

·       Location: Present Adilabad District, part of Berar State during the revolt.

·       Capture of Manikhgarh Fort: The Gonds, led by Ramji Gond, captured Manikhgarh Fort, marking their first victory.

·       1853 Treaty: A treaty between the Nizam and the East India Company transferred Berar to British control, sparking local resentment.

·       Leaders: The revolt was led by Ramji Gond and Haji Rohilla, with support from Tatya Tope, a prominent leader of the 1857 Rebellion.

·       Nirmal as Capital: The rebels declared Nirmal as their capital, with Ramji Gond briefly ruling the region.

·       Army Composition: Ramji Gond assembled an army of 300 Gonds, 200 Rohilla Muslims, and 500 Telugu and Maratha soldiers.

·       British Response: The British, with support from the Nizam’s army under Col. Robert, launched a counterattack.

·       Defeat and Execution: The British defeated Ramji Gond’s forces. Ramji Gond and over 1000 guerillas were executed by hanging from the Veyyi Urula Marri (Thousand Noose Tree).

·       Memorial: A memorial honoring Ramji Gond exists in Nirmal Fort.

·        Birth and Early Life: Kumram Bheem was born on 22nd October 1901 in Sankepally village, Jodeghat, Asifabad, Adilabad District. Parents: Kumram Chinnu and Sombai.

·        Tribal Livelihood: Tribals in the Jodeghat area practiced Podu (shifting agriculture). They faced interference due to the 1917 Act introduced by the Nizam government, which imposed taxes and restricted their forest rights.

·        Taxes Imposed: Tribals had to pay several taxes such as Bancherai Pannu, Dumpa Patti, Ghar Patti, Nagar Patti, and Faisal Patti, leading to hardships as they were unfamiliar with monetary transactions.

·        Forest Revenue Office: Established in Utnoor (1918) to collect taxes, causing further exploitation. A paper mill in Sirpurkagaz Nagar seized large forest areas for raw materials, displacing many Gonds who became factory workers.

·        Exploitation: Non-locals, including Marathas, Telugu, and Muslim individuals, occupied Gond lands with the support of corrupt officials and moneylenders.

·        Turning Point: After a quarrel over land with Pattedar Siddiq Ali, Kumram Bheem killed Siddiq, which united Gonds and Kolams. Bheem fled to Bollarum and later to Chandrapur, working in Vithoba’s printing press.

·        British Oppression: Vithoba was arrested for printing anti-government materials. Bheem fled and worked in coffee and tea plantations, where he witnessed further British exploitation.

·        Return to Jodeghat: After escaping British authorities, Kumram Bheem returned to his people in Jodeghat, Adilabad, and married Sombai of Devadom village.

·        12 Gond Villages Established:

1. Babezhari
2. Jodeghat
3. Chalbardi
4. Goginmovadam
5. Hoyikhan Movadam
6. Bhimangondi
7. Kallegam
8. Murikilanka
9. Ankusalpur
10. Narsapur
11. Demdiguda
12. Patnapur

·        Government Resistance: The Revenue and Forest officers claimed that 3000 acres of land were being cultivated illegally. Cases were filed against the tribals, leading to clashes. Kumram Bheem was injured in a fight.

·        Demand for Autonomy: Bheem demanded autonomous powers for their 12 villages and corresponded with the Nizam government, with support from Janakapuram Panthulu and Ramachandra Rao (Advocate of Asifabad). However, the Nizam ignored his pleas.

·        Final Stand: After witnessing police atrocities in Jodeghat, Bheem declared the 12 villages as liberated and formed a guerilla army comprising Gonds, Kolams, Paradhans, Thotis, Nayaks, and Podu tribals.

·        Betrayal and Attack: Government forces, led by Captain Ali Raza Branden, with the help of Kurdu Patel, attacked Jodeghat during a tribal gathering on Ashwayuja Pournami (1st September 1940). Police killed 140 tribals, including Kumram Bheem, who fought until his last breath.

·        Death Toll: The Nizam’s government officially reported 9 dead, but Baddam Yellareddy estimated the number of martyrs to be 138.

·        Aftermath: Following the massacre, Nizam appointed Austrian Professor Christ von Furer Heimendorf to study Gond conditions, leading to the Dastur-ul-Amal Act (1940). The 1/70 Act was later introduced in India.

·        Legacy: Kumram Bheem is remembered as a hero and eternal leader of the Gonds. His death anniversary (Ashwayuja Pournami after Dussehra) is celebrated as a State Festival in Telangana since 2014.

·        Agrarian Economy: Hyderabad State was predominantly agrarian with a feudal land system.

Land Tenure Types:

1.      Diwani: 60% of agricultural land under direct land revenue system.

2.      Jagirs (Paigas): 30% under Jagir system, controlled by Jagirdars, Sanstanams, Banjardars, Muktedars, Inamdars, and Agraharanas. They had their own revenue, police, civil and criminal offices for tax collection.

3.      Sarfekhas: 10% of agricultural land was kept for the Nizam’s personal expenses.

·        Deshmukhs and Landlords: Local landlords (Deshmukhs) owned large portions of land and exploited peasants.

·        Oppression and Suffering: Peasants faced extreme oppression, exploitation, and suffering due to these feudal land systems, including high taxes, forced labor, and debt bondage.

·        Commercialisation of Agriculture: Main crops in Hyderabad State included Jowar, Bajra, Rice, and Cereals. By the 20th century, commercial crops like cotton, oil seeds, groundnut, and castor became prominent, especially among rich peasants.

·        Market Economy Penetration: The spread of the market economy significantly impacted the agrarian economy, driven by reforms initiated by Salar Jung such as:

1.      State control over agriculture.

2.      Cash payment of revenue.

3.      Increased demand for food grains.

·        Cotton and Oil Seeds: By the 1930s, over 60% of cotton was exported, and oil seed cultivation expanded, incorporating Hyderabad’s economy into the global market.

·        Irrigation & Seed Improvements: The State supported commercial agriculture with irrigation facilities and improved seed varieties.

·        Decline in Foodgrain Cultivation: Foodgrain cultivation dropped from 75% (1920-22) to 68% (1949-50), harming the food security of peasants.

·        Impact of Commercialisation: Increased tenant exploitation and rural indebtedness as landlords intensified profit-driven exploitation.

·        Concentration of Land: In Hyderabad State, particularly in Telangana, large portions of cultivable land were controlled by landlords and Jagirdars.

·        Illegal Exactions: Jagirdars imposed 82 varieties of illegal exactions on peasants. About 110 Jagirdars collected Rs. 10 crores from these exactions.

·        Deshmukhs’ Power: Deshmukhs held immense political and economic power as rent collectors and landowners, supported by Patels and Patwaris.

·        Jagirdars’ Autonomy: Jagirs functioned like states within a state, with their own rules and authority, leading to the degeneration of the system and increased feudal exploitation.

Role of Andhra Maha Sabha, Congress, and Communist Party

·        Andhra Maha Sabha (AMS) formed in 1930 to address social evils like forced labor, untouchability, child marriage, and promote widow remarriage and Dalit rights.

·        By 1940, Communists took over AMS, making it a platform for peasant and labor struggles.

·        Hyderabad State Congress (1938) formed, led by Ramanand Tirtha and Govindrao Nanal, pushing for Hyderabad’s accession to Indian Union. It was banned by the Nizam.

·        Communist Influence (1944): Ravi Narayan Reddy steered AMS toward peasant movements, leading to a split between liberals and Communists.

·        Peasant Struggles (1946): AMS, under Communist leadership, evolved into an armed peasant revolt against feudal oppression.

·        June 3, 1933: Peasants in Bhuvanagiri, Nalgonda District, protested for land rights, reduced levies, and irrigation facilities.

·        Mondrayi: Lambada farmers led by Communist Party and Andhra Mahasabha reclaimed 70 acres from Deshmukh Kandaru Narsimha Rao.

·        Suryapet Area: 3,000 farmers led by Gajula Ramachandraiah and Andhra Mahasabha revolted against Jannareddy Pratap Reddy and reclaimed lands.

·        Huzurnagar: 1,500 peasants reclaimed 500 acres from landlord Bhogala Veera Reddy under leaders Teegela Linga Reddy and Balapanoor Bapaiah.

·        Bethavolu Village: Venapally Rangaiah led 5,000 farmers in revolt against Tadakamalla Sitaramachander Rao, reclaiming 600 acres.

·        Munagala Samsthanam: Farmers under Nanduri Prasada Rao launched Satyagraha against Zamindar Venkata Ranga Rao demanding fair wages and abolition of vetti (bonded labor).

·        Movements between 1930-1947: Focused on land reclamation and abolition of oppressive systems like bonded labor, led by local leaders and organizations like Andhra Mahasabha.

·        Ramachandra Reddy, Deshmukh of Visunuu village (Jangaon ) notorious for land grabbing.

·        Sheikh Bandagi, a Muslim youth-Kamareddygudem village, fought against Deshmukh-family land dispute.

·        1939:Family land distributed, eldest brother Abbas Ali sold his share, supported by Deshmukh – claim more land f- Bandagi.

·        After 3 years, court ruled in favor of Bandagi, sparking Deshmukh’s anger and leading to ongoing clashes for 12 years.

·        Bandagi was murdered on the night he received court papers, marking his struggle as symbolic of resistance against feudal extortion and atrocities.

·        Bandagi’s fight inspired 20 surrounding villages, contributing to the larger Telangana Armed Peasant Struggle against feudal lords.

First Phase – Mass Resistance (Telangana Peasants Armed Struggle)

·        World War II Levy System: Peasants forced to give foodgrains per acre; landlords evaded this.

·        War Fund Contributions: Government forcibly collected money from peasants, worsening their plight.

·        Landlord Exploitation: Tenants and agricultural laborers faced increased oppression by landlords and deshmukhs.

·        Andhra Mahasabha & Communist Party Role: Mobilized peasants, trained volunteers to resist.

·        Tactics: Peasants used lathis, slings; women threw chilli powder, stones, boiling water at police.

·        Nizam Government’s Repression: Army camps set up in villages; Communist Party banned (Nov 1946), halting peasant resistance.

·        Ban Lifted on Congress (April 1946): Mobilized people for Hyderabad’s accession to Indian Union.

·        Nizam’s Stance (June 11, 1947): Nizam declared independence, rejecting accession to either India or Pakistan.

·        Join Indian Movement (August 7, 1947): National flag hoisted across Hyderabad; thousands of satyagrahis arrested.

·        Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen: Opposed Hyderabad’s accession to Indian Union.

·        Political Unity: Various political parties united under Ramananda Tirtha to pressure Nizam.

·        Nizam Police and Razakars: Used violence to suppress agitators.

·        Congress Border Camps: Organized counter-raids against Police and Razakars.

·        Communist Party Involvement: Advocated armed insurrection, formed armed squads across Telangana.

·        Slogan: “Land to the tiller” aimed at fighting feudal landlords.

Third Phase – Armed Struggle (Telangana Peasants Armed Struggle)

·        Land Redistribution: By 1947, Communists redistributed land from rich landlords to the poor across 3,000 villages.

·        Communist Expansion: Formed village squads (10,000 members) and guerrilla squads (2,000 members).

·        Civic Breakdown: By June 1948, civic life in Hyderabad State deteriorated.

o   Village Attacks: 250 villages looted/burnt; 4,000 houses set on fire.

o   Casualties: 500 killed/wounded, 450 women molested by Razakars.

·        Communist Activity:

o   Murdered ~2,000 people.

o   Attacked 22 police outposts.

o   Disrupted communications, supply lines; used guerilla tactics.

·        Government Response: Hyderabad Government lifted the ban on Communists but jailed many Congress leaders, leading to further Communist growth.

·        Police Action: Union government initiated Police Action – September 1948 to integrate Hyderabad into Indian Union.

·        Chakali Ailamma: Courageous woman, member of Andhra Maha Sabha and Communist Party, pivotal in Telangana People’s Armed Struggle.

·        Fought Against Deshmukh: Opposed Ramachandra Reddy, Deshmukh of Visunoor, who illegally controlled vast lands.

·        Land Dispute: Ailamma and her husband Chityala Narsaiah cultivated 10 acres of wetland and 20 acres of dry land as tenants of Maktedar Utham Raja Rahava Rao.

·        Bedakhal: Landlords used land alienation (Bedakhal) to remove peasants from legally cultivated lands.

·        Palakurthy Conspiracy Case: Police arrested Ailamma’s family during the Palakurthy Jathara riot.

·        Land Grab: Deshmukh collaborated with the Maktedar to claim Ailamma’s cultivated land and crop yield.

·        Struggle: With support from Communist leaders like Bheem Reddy Narsimha Reddy and Devulapalli Venkateswara Rao, Ailamma’s family reclaimed their land from hired goons.

·        Communist Ailamma: Known-her bravery, cooperation-Communist leaders, and contribution to the movement, earning the title “Communist Ailamma”.

·        Ravi Narayana Reddy: Submitted a memorandum exposing Deshmukh’s atrocities, which was published in the Meezan newspaper.

·        Doddi Komaraiah: First martyr of Telangana Armed Struggle, a shepherd from Kuruma caste.

·        Brother’s suffering: Joined Andhra Maha Sabha due to brother Doddi Mallaiah’s mistreatment by Janamma Dorasani and Visunuru Deshmukh.

·        Village Resistance: Led by Yerramreddy Mohan Reddy, organized villagers against Deshmukh’s oppression.

·        Provocation: Hired goons under Mishkin Ali provoked villagers by attacking homes.

·        Protest: 500 villagers protested against Deshmukh and Dorasani; Komaraiah was killed during firing by goons.

·        First Martyr: Komaraiah’s death ignited the Telangana Armed Struggle.

·        Vattikota Alwar Swamy: Wrote Prajala Manishi and Gangu inspired by Komaraiah and Telangana’s struggles.

·        Investigation: Led by Arutla Lakshmi Narasimha Reddy into police atrocities.

·        Suppression: Mirza Ali Haider headed the Nizam’s commission to suppress the movement.

·        Hyderabad State: Largest princely state with 81,608 sq. miles, over 16 million people, and distinct systems like currency, posts, telegraph, railways, civil service, army, and police.

·        British Suzerainty: Under British protection,-t not part of British India.

·        Nizam’s Rule: Feudal, autocratic, and medieval, ignoring political, social, and economic interests of the majority.

·        Exploitation and Poverty: Pomp in Hyderabad contrasted with extreme poverty, illiteracy, and lawlessness in rural areas.

·        Post-Independence: On 15th August 1947, India and Pakistan became independent, but Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan declared Hyderabad an independent state, refusing to join either.

·        Police Action (13-17 September 1948): Indian government took military action, leading to the integration of Hyderabad State into India.

People’s Movements in Hyderabad State

·       Oppression: Hyderabad State under the Nizam faced severe oppression with high land revenue, forced labor, and lack of education and healthcare.

·       Slow Nationalism: Nationalist movement spread slower compared to British India, but anti-Nizam movements grew strong.

·       Peasant Struggles: Telangana Peasant Struggle highlighted growing dissatisfaction among the peasants.

·       Post-Independence: After 1947, the struggle intensified, focusing on liberation from the Nizam and uniting Hyderabad with India.

·       Leadership: Swami Ramanand Tirtha led the Freedom Struggle, demanding responsible government and democratic rights.

·       Success: The movement resulted in the integration of Hyderabad into India, ensuring democratic freedom and strengthening national uni

·        Independence Act, 1947: Ended British paramountcy over Princely States, allowing them to choose between India or Pakistan.

·        Vallabhbhai Patel and V.P. Menon: Key figures in integrating 500+ Princely States into the Indian Union through diplomacy, firmness, and strategic efforts.

·        Hyderabad’s Resistance: Nizam of Hyderabad sought special status and direct links with Britain, delaying integration into India.

·        Lord Mountbatten’s Role: Advised Nizam against joining the British Commonwealth and initiated negotiations for Hyderabad’s accession to India.

·        Nizam’s Proposal (18th September 1947): Offered a treaty with India focusing on defence, external affairs, and communications, yet delayed merging with Indian Union.

Standstill Agreement (Hyderabad State, 1947)

·        Post-Independence Conflict: Indian government demanded Hyderabad’s accession on Defence, Foreign Affairs, and Communications. Nizam resisted, aiming to remain independent.

·        Nizam’s Position: Desired a treaty as an equal sovereign, rejecting full accession but offering association with India.

·        Negotiation and Standstill Agreement: After intense negotiations, under pressure from Lord Mountbatten and constitutional advisor Sir Walter Monckton, Nizam signed the Standstill Agreement on 29th November 1947.

Agreement Terms:

1.      Existing arrangements on External Affairs, Defence, and Communications between the British Crown and Hyderabad would continue with India for one year.

2.      No Indian obligation to maintain troops in Hyderabad.

3.      Agents appointed in Hyderabad and Delhi for better execution.

4.      No paramountcy functions introduced; no rights post-agreement except by arbitration if disputes arise.

5.      Agreement lasted for one year, signed by Nizam and Governor-General of India.

·        Nizam’s Declaration: The agreement maintained his sovereignty, suspending certain rights temporarily.

·        India-Hyderabad Tensions: India and Hyderabad blamed each other for breaches, particularly in trade and defense.

·        Economic Blockade: India imposed an economic blockade despite promises to support Hyderabad’s trade.

Razakars’ Role:

·        Syed Qasim Razvi: Led Razakar protests against the Standstill Agreement.

·        Razakar Militia: Hyderabad violated defense clauses by building a semi-private army.

·        Atrocities: Razakars attacked borders, looted trains, and targeted Hindus.

Hyderabad’s Actions:

·        Arms Purchase: Nizam sent E.L. Edroos to procure arms from Sidney Cotton.

·        Loan to Pakistan: Nizam lent ₹20 crore to Pakistan, violating financial protocols.

·        Currency Restrictions: Banned the use of Indian rupees within Hyderabad.

Indian Response:

·        Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel: Described Hyderabad as an “ulcer” in India’s heart.

·        Failed Agreement: Discussions between Mir Laik Ali and V.P. Menon under the “Heads of Agreement” led to no resolution.

Civil Society Requests and Protests:

·        Merchants demanded law and order, threatening business closure.

·        Lawyers boycotted courts; Pleaders’ Protest Committee formed under Vinayak Rao Vidyalankar.

·        Some Muslims opposed Razakars’ violence and supported victims.

Murder of Shoebullah Khan:

·        Shoebullah Khan, editor of Imroze, murdered on August 21, 1948 for criticizing Razakars.

·        Self-defense camps organized, Communists led resistance in Telangana.

Government of India’s White Paper (July 26, 1948):

·        India warned of intervention due to Hyderabad’s deteriorating law and order.

Government of India’s Restrictions:

·        Deccan Airways banned, railways and communications restricted, financial transactions blocked.

Role of Vallabhai Patel:

·        Patel diplomatically integrated Princely States, initiated Police Action (Operation Polo) leading to Hyderabad’s accession to India.

·        Merchants demanded law and order, threatening business closure.

·        Lawyers boycotted courts; Pleaders’ Protest Committee formed under Vinayak Rao Vidyalankar.

·        Some Muslims opposed Razakars’ violence and supported victims.

Murder of Shoebullah Khan:

·        Shoebullah Khan, editor of Imroze, murdered on August 21, 1948 for criticizing Razakars.

·        Self-defense camps organized, Communists led resistance in Telangana.

Government of India’s White Paper (July 26, 1948):

·        India warned of intervention due to Hyderabad’s deteriorating law and order.

Government of India’s Restrictions:

·        Deccan Airways banned, railways and communications restricted, financial transactions blocked.

Role of Vallabhai Patel:

·        Patel diplomatically integrated Princely States, initiated Police Action (Operation Polo) leading to Hyderabad’s accession to India.

Operation Polo

·        September 1948: Indian Army launched Operation Polo to integrate Hyderabad into India after failed negotiations with Nizam.

Pre-Police Action Conditions

·        May 1948: Relations between India and Hyderabad worsened; Nizam hoped for British intervention but was disappointed.

·        Sardar Vallabhai Patel pushed for military intervention, while Nehru feared communal unrest and international fallout.

Hyderabad’s Military

·        Hyderabad’s Army: 24,000 troops (only 6,000 trained) with Major General El Edroos as commander, supported by 200,000 Razakars led by Kasim Razvi.

Indian Army

·        Lt. Gen. Rajendrasinghji, DSO led the Indian Army.

·        Major General J.N. Chaudhuri commanded four task forces: Strike, Smash, Kill, and Vir Force.

·        Major General Ajit Rudra led the attack from Vijayawada.

Surrender of Nizam

·        September 13-18, 1948: The battle lasted five days.

·        On September 17, Laik Ali’s ministry resigned, Nizam ordered ceasefire and disbanded Razakars.

·        J.N. Chaudhuri became Military Governor of Hyderabad, M.K. Vellodi was appointed Chief Minister, and Nizam was granted the title of Rajpramukh.

·        Hyderabad State was integrated into the Union of India.