Indian History SPMB

I.       History and Culture of India, with special reference to Modern Period (1757 to 1947 A.D.)

Theme 2:   Vedic civilization

Theme 3:   Emergence of Religious Movements in the 6^th BC – Jainism and Buddhism

Theme 4:   Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravathi Schools

Theme 5:   Social and Cultural condition under the Mauryan

Theme 6:   Satavahanas and Guptas.

·       Also known as: Harappan Civilization, named after the first city Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan).

·       Largest of the ancient civilizations: Compared to Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, and China.

·       Artifacts: Known for sculptures, seals, pottery, jewelry, and other important archaeological findings.

City Planning Features

1.      Urban Planning: Early examples of urban civic planning at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.

2.      Houses and Water Management:

·       Houses had bathing areas and wells.

·       Covered drains laid out in straight lines; connected house drains to street drains.

·       Inspection holes provided for cleaning the drains.

3.      Dholavira:

·       Located – Kachchh District, Gujarat.

·       Divided – two parts: a walled city & cemetery.

·       Known – reservoirs- east and south of the citadel.

·       Declared India’s 40th UNESCO World Heritage Site and the first Indus Valley Civilization site in India.

Trade

·        Extensive Trade Network: Involved both domestic and foreign trade.

·        Mesopotamian Records: Indicate contact between Mesopotamia and Harappans (called Meluhha in Mesopotamian texts).

·        Imports from Harappa: Copper, carnelian, ivory, shell, lapis-lazuli, pearls, ebony.

·        Exports to Harappa: Garments, wool, perfumes, leather products, silver.

·       Granaries, Red sandstone Male torso, Lingam and Yoni symbols, Painted pottery, Mother Goddess figurines, Dice.

2.      Mohenjo-daro (discovered by R.D. Banerjee, 1922):

·       Largest site – IVC.

·       Post-cremation burial, Great Granary, Great Bath (largest structure), Pasupathi seal, Bronze dancing girl.

3.      Chanhudaro (Indus River) (discovered by N.G. Mazumdar, 1931):

·       Inkpot, Lipstick, Metal workers and bead makers shops, Dog’s paw imprint – brick, Terracotta bullock cart model, Bronze toy cart.

4.      Lothal (Bhogava River) (discovered by S. Rao, 1953):

·       Naval trade site, Cremation site, Dockyard, Granaries, Rice husk, Double burial (male and female together).

5.      Dholavira (Luni River) (discovered by R. Bisht, 1985):

·       Unique water harnessing system, storm water drainage, divided into 3 parts, Megalithic stone circle.

6.      Surkotada (Gujarat) (discovered by S. Joshi, 1964):

·       Horse remains, Oval graves, Pot burials, Soldiers’ sign on potsherd.

7.      Kalibangan (Ghaggar River) (discovered by A. Ghosh):

·       Bangle factory, Ploughed field surface, Camel bones, Fire altars.

Society

·        Matriarchal Structure: Evidenced by worship of the mother goddess and numerous female figurines found in Punjab and Sind regions.

·        Diverse Professions: Priests, warriors, peasants, traders, artisans (masons, weavers, goldsmiths, potters, etc.).

·        Class-based Residences: Structural remains at Harappa and Lothal show different types of residential buildings.

·        Dress: Men wore garments wrapped around the lower body, extending over the left shoulder and under the right arm.

·        Clothing Materials: Both cotton and wool were used; a piece of woven cloth was discovered at Mohenjo-daro.

·        Spinning and Weaving: Spindles and needles found at multiple sites confirm textile production.

·        Ornaments: Popular items included necklaces, armlets, earrings, beads, bangles, etc.

·        Main occupation: Agriculture and pastoralism (cattle-rearing).

·        Fertile Indus alluvium: Led to surplus agricultural production, supporting internal and external trade and the development of crafts and industries.

·        Granaries: Found – Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and Lothal, served – grain storage facilities.

·        Plough cultivation: Evidenced by furrows at Kalibangan and terracotta plough at Banawali (Hissar, Haryana).

·        Irrigation: Small-scale, using wells or river water channels.

·        Crops:

·       Main food crops: Wheat, barley, sesame, mustard, peas, jujube.

·       Rice evidence: Found in Lothal and Rangpur (husk embedded in pottery).

·       Cotton: Important crop, with a piece of woven cloth discovered at Mohenjo-daro.

·       Diet: Also included fish and animal meat.

Industries and Crafts

·        Metals: Known metals – gold, silver, and copper. Iron was not used.

o   Gold objects: Beads, armlets, needles, and ornaments.

o   Silver: More common, found in ornaments and dishes.

o   Copper tools and weapons: Axes, saws, chisels, knives, spearheads, arrowheads.

o   Stone tools: Also commonly used.

·        Metal sources:

o   Copper from Khetri (Rajasthan).

o   Gold from Himalayan river-beds and South India.

o   Silver possibly from Mesopotamia.

·        Bronze use: Limited but significant; famous example – bronze ‘dancing girl’ figurine from Mohenjo-daro.

·        Bead-making: Important craft, with ivory carving and inlaying used in beads, bracelets, and other decorations.

·        Harappan craftsmanship: Showcased mastery -variety of arts and crafts.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

·        No Monumental Temples: Despite – advanced engineering – no large religious structures were built.

·        Worship of Nature: Included trees, stones, and animals. Many terracotta figurines suggest the worship of the mother goddess.

·        Male Deity Worship: Depicted – seals; a deity –buffalo-horned headdress, seated – yogic posture, surrounded – animals –elephants, tigers, rhinos, buffaloes, and deer at his feet, identified – Pashupati or Proto-Shiva (Lord of Beasts).

·        Arrival of Indo-Aryans: Indo-Aryan speakers Sanskrit arrived – N-W India – Indo-Iranian region.

·        Migration Routes: Came-northwestern Mountain passages, – northwestern lowlands, Punjab plains, and later spreading – Indo-Gangetic plains.

·        Rig Vedic Period: Aryans – confined – Indus region during this period.

Vedic Literature

·        Vedas: Derived – “vid” meaning “to know,” signifying “superior knowledge.”

1.      Rig Veda: Oldest of the Vedas, – 1028 hymns – praise – various gods. Refers – Saptasindhu (land of seven rivers: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, Indus, and Saraswati). Contains insight – political, social, and cultural life.

2.      Yajur Veda: Contains rules – sacrificial rituals.

3.      Sama Veda: Known – book of chants, set to tune – chanting during sacrifices, tracing – origins of Indian music.

4.      Atharva Veda: Contains details of rituals.

Additional Sacred Works

·        Brahmanas: Treatises – prayer and sacrificial ceremonies.

·        Upanishads: Philosophical texts dealing – topics – soul, absolute truth, origin of the world, and nature’s mysteries.

·        Aranyakas: Known – forest books, focusing – mysticism, rites, rituals, & sacrifices.

·        Crops: Cultivated wheat, barley, rice, pulses, millet, lentils, sugarcane, etc. Tila (sesame) – vegetable oil and ceremonial offerings.

·        Iron Introduction (~1000 BC): Significant development, enabling – clearing of dense rainforests & expanding cultivable land.

·        Indra: Lord of the Plough, highlighting – importance of agriculture in religious and social life.

Political Organization

·        Basic Unit: Kula (family); multiple families formed – grama (village) – gramani.

·        Larger Units: Several villages formed – visu, headed – by vishayapati.

·        Highest Unit: Jana (tribe); several tribal kingdoms – Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus, and Purus.

·        Rajan (King): The head of the kingdom, -hereditary monarchy, assisted by purohita (priest) & senani (army commander).

·        Popular Bodies:

·       Sabha: A council of elders.

·       Samiti: A general assembly of the people.

• Founder: Vardhaman Mahavira (24th Tirthankara), born 599 BC, near Vaishali, Bihar.
• Goal: Purification of soul and attainment of nirvana (freedom from birth and death) through Triratna and Panchamahavrata (Five Great Vows).

Triratnas (Three Gems)

• Right Faith (Samyag-darshana)
• Right Knowledge (Samyag-jnana)
• Right Conduct (Samyag-charitra)

Five Great Vows (Panchamahavrata)

• Ahimsa (Non-violence)
• Asteya (Not stealing)
• Satya (Truthfulness)
• Brahmacharya (Celibacy)
• Aparigraha (non-possession)

Jain Sects

• Svetambaras (White-clad): Led by Sthulabahu, stayed in North India.
• Digambaras (Sky-clad): Led by Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya, migrated to Sravana Belgola, Karnataka.

Jain Councils

• First Council: Pataliputra, 3rd century BC, led by Sthulabahu.
• Second Council: Valabhi, 5th century AD, final compilation of Twelve Angas.

Decline of Jainism

• Lack of royal patronage.
• Division into Digambaras and Svetambaras.
• Severe practices.
• Competition with Buddhism.

Contributions of Jainism

• Non-violence (Ahimsa) toward all living beings.
• Promoted Prakrit and Kannada languages (Mahavira preached in Ardha-Magadhi).
• Introduced Syadvad (doctrine of conditional truth).
• Art and architecture: Gomateshwara statue at Shravanabelagola, Khajuraho temples, Ellora caves.
• Boosted the trading community.

·        Birth: Born as Siddhartha to Suddhodhana and Mahamaya (Sakya clan).

·        Marriage: Married Yasodhara at 16, had a son Rahula.

·        Renunciation: Left home at 29 after seeing old age, sickness, death, and asceticism.

·        Enlightenment: Achieved at Bodh Gaya under the Bodhi tree at 35.

·        First Sermon: Delivered at Sarnath, preached for 45 years.

·        Death: Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kusinagara at 80.

Teachings of Buddha

·        Four Noble Truths:

1.      The world is full of suffering.

2.      The cause of suffering is desire.

3.      Ending desire ends suffering.

4.      This can be achieved by following the Eightfold Path.

·        Eightfold Path: Right view, resolve, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration.

Symbols for Events in Buddha’s Life

• Conception: White Elephant
• Birth: Lotus and Bull
• Renunciation: Horse
• Enlightenment: Bodhi Tree
• First Sermon: Wheel
• Death: Stupa

Spread of Buddhism

·        Two disciples: Monks (bhikshus) and Lay worshippers (upasikas).

·        Sangha: Democratic governance, spread Buddhism across Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi.

·        Emperor Ashoka embraced and spread Buddhism across West Asia and Ceylon.

Buddhist Literature

·        Tripitakas: Compiled – Pali language, the three pitakas of Buddhist teachings:

o   Vinaya Pitaka: Monastic rules and moral discipline.

o   Sutta Pitaka: Buddha’s discourses and teachings; contains Theragatha, Therigatha (Hymns of Elder Monks & Nuns), and Jataka tales.

o   Abhidhamma Pitaka: Philosophical discussions.

·        Milinda Panha: Dialogue between Greco-Bactrian King Menander and Buddhist monk Nagasena.

·        Ceylonese Chronicles: Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Culavamsa.

Decline of Buddhism in India

• Brahmanism Revival: Bhagavatism’s rise reduced Buddhism’s influence.
• Language Shift: Pali was replaced by Sanskrit, alienating the masses.
• Mahayana Practices: Idol worship and offerings weakened moral standards.
• Invasions: Huns (5th–6th centuries) and Turkish invaders (12th century) destroyed monasteries.

·       Religious Complications: Complex Vedic rituals alienated common people, creating demand-simpler worship.

·       Economic Changes: Rising Vaishya class sought recognition; Jainism and Buddhism supported non-violence and protected agricultural resources.

·       Brahmin Dominance: Brahmins’ control over religious practices caused resentment; Jainism and Buddhism preached in local languages (Prakrit, Pali).

·       Art and Architecture: Temples, stupas, chaityas, and viharas developed (e.g., Sanchi, Mount Abu).

·       Philosophical Contributions: Ahimsa – central value in Indian thought.

·       Political Influence: Concepts – sabhas and samitis originated; Indian culture spread across Asia.

·       Simplicity: Easy-to-understand teachings contrasted with Vedic complexities.

·       Challenge to Caste: Both religions promoted equality, challenging the caste system.

·        Occupations were hereditary and intermarriage prohibited.

·        Strabo mentioned two important social classes: Brachmanes (Brahmanas) and Garmanes (Shramanas).

·        Varna System well-established: Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra. Mixed castes (Nishad, Magadh, Sut, Veg, Chandals) mentioned in Kautilya’s Arthashastra.

·       Bindusara: Favored Ajivikas.

·       Ashoka: Adopted Buddhism, promoted Dhamma, and emphasized tolerance without imposing religion on subjects.

Agriculture

·       Society thrived – agriculture; fertile soil, rivers, rainfall enabled growth of diverse crops.

·       Animal herding – a major non-agrarian activity. Kautilya listed animals -taxable.

Women in Society

·       Women held high positions and some served as king’s bodyguards.

·       Right to divorce and remarry.

·       Ashoka’s Major Rock Edict V addressed concerns for slaves: “Every human is my child.”

Entertainment

·       Included hunting, drama, magic, acting, and painting.

·       Social events like Vihara-yatra, Samaj, and Pravahana were popular.

Administration

·       Highly organized and centralized administration with a network of officials and spies.

·       Focus on public welfare and ethical behavior, promoted by Ashoka’s edicts.

• Strategic Locations: Access to iron ore (e.g., Magadha) enhanced weapon and tool production.
• Agricultural Advancements: Iron ploughs boosted farming, leading to surplus crops and wealth.
• Leadership Changes: Transition from tribes to monarchies (Anga, Vatsa) and republics (Kuru, Kamboja).
• Constant Rivalries: Frequent battles (e.g., Battle of Ten Kings) drove territorial expansion.

• Expanded Trade Networks: Connected with Gandhara, Persia, promoting internal and external trade.
• Introduction of Coinage: First use of punch-marked coins simplified trade and boosted the economy.
• Urbanization: Cities like Vaishali and Ujjaini became major trade and cultural hubs.
• Religious Movements: Jainism and Buddhism emerged, challenging traditional beliefs.
• Cultural Flourishing: Literary works like Panini’s Ashtadhyayi reflected advances in grammar and language.

• The Chalukyas of Badami (5th century) – crucial role -shaping South Indian architecture, particularly – Western Deccan region.

Location of Constructions:

Major Temple Complexes: Along Malaprabha River in Ayyavole, Pattadakal, and Badami.

Key Sites:

1.      Aihole: Ladkhan Temple, Durga Temple.

2.      Pattadakal: Virupaksha Temple.

3.      Badami: Ravana Phadi Cave, Badami Cave Temples.

1.      Initiators of Vesara Style:

·       Fusion – Dravidian and Nagara styles.

·       Example: Virupaksha Temple, Ladkhan Temple.

2.      Rock-Cut Cave Architecture:

·       Example: Ravana Phadi Cave.

3.      Intricate Wall and Pillar Ornamentation:

·       Indigenous and intricate designs.

·       Temples for different faiths found in their architectural legacy.

5.      Virupaksha Temple:

·       Considered the “Jewel of Badami Architecture.”

·       Modeled after Kanchi’s Kailasanatha Temple.

6.      Inspiration for Successors:

·       Influenced Rashtrakutas, who built the Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora.

Stylistic Features:

·       Blend of Gupta and post-Gupta styles.

·       Delicate brushwork, lifelike figures, vibrant colors.

Subject Matter:

·       Jataka tales, Buddha’s life, celestial beings, royal processions.

·       Strong influence – Buddhism and court patronage.

Stylistic Features:

·       Synthesis of Gupta, Deccan, and Chalukyan influences.

·       Strong lines, bold compositions, architectural details.

Subject Matter:

·       Hindu deities, mythological narratives, scenes from Ramayana and Mahabharata.

·       Patronage of Hindu rulers.

Stylistic Features:

·       Influenced by Gupta and post-Gupta periods.

·       Elegant figures, graceful poses, restrained color palette.

Subject Matter:

·       Hindu deities, Shiva’s cosmic dance (Nataraja), Krishna’s life.

·       Amalgamation of Hindu and Buddhist influences

Stylistic Features:

·       Blend of Gupta and Dravidian styles.

·       Intricate details, fine line work, dynamic compositions.

Subject Matter:

·       Hindu gods and goddesses, royal processions, scenes from the Puranas.

·       Royal patronage of Chalukya dynasty.

·        Untouchability began; untouchables were called Chandalas, living outside the village and engaged in unclean jobs like scavenging and butchery.

·        Fa-Hien noted Chandalas had to announce their arrival to avoid polluting others.

Position of Women

·        Decline in women’s status, dependent on men for livelihood.

·        Women had no inheritance rights except Stridhana (gifts received during marriage).

·        No purdah system, but evidence of Sati practice exists.

·        Gupta kings mainly Vaishnavaites, performed Aswamedha sacrifices.

·        Buddhism declined in the Gangetic valley but a few Buddhist intellectuals like Vasubandhu were supported.

·        Jainism thrived in western and southern India; Jain Canon of Swetambras was written, Great Jain Council at Valabhi.

Literature

·        Golden Age of art & literature; Ramayana and Mahabharata were finalized.

·        Puranas – Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, Matsya Purana written during – period.

·        Narada Smriti compiled, providing insights into social and economic regulations.

·        Sanskrit flourished, with poets like Kalidasa (works: Meghadutam, Abhijnanashakuntalam, Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava, Ritusamhara).

·        Higher caste speak – Sanskrit. Lower caste & women speak – Prakrit

·        Other famous dramatists: Shudraka (Mrichchhkatikam) and Vishakhadatta (Mudrarakshasa).

·       First structured temples built during Gupta period (Nagara style).

·       Notable examples: Brick temple at Bhitargaon (Kanpur), stone temple at Deogarh (Jhansi).

·       Central deity: Vishnu.

Sculpture:

·       Buddha Statues: Standing Buddha – Mathura shows slight Greek influence.

·       Famous Buddha statue – Sarnath and the Great Boar (Varaha) at Udayagiri.

·       Bhitari Monolithic Pillar: Erected by Skandagupta, a remarkable piece of Gupta art.

Metal Statues:

·       Advanced large-scale metal casting using core process.

·       Notable examples: Copper Buddha (18 feet)- Nalanda, Sultanganj Buddha (7.5 feet).

Paintings:

·       Mural Paintings: Found at Ajanta, Bagh, Badami.

·       Ajanta Paintings: Illustrate Buddha’s life through Jataka stories.

·       Sigiriya (Sri Lanka): Influenced by Ajanta style.

·       Known as – Andhras in Puranas.

·       First king: Simuka.

·       “Satavahana” means “driven by seven” (Sun God’s chariot).

Society

Matrilineal Naming:

·       Kings like Gautamiputra Satakarni named after their mothers.

·       Claimed – Brahmanas who subdued Kshatriyas.

Varna System:

·       Brahmanas (Priests), Kshatriyas (Warriors), Vaishyas (Traders), Shudras (Laborers).

Merchants & Artisans:

·        Thriving trade led prominent role -merchants and artisans.

·        Merchants named after towns – reflecting urban trade culture.

Women’s Status:

·        Women – higher status, especially – royal families.

·        Kings often used their mother’s name, indicating matrilineal influence.

·        Donors: Blacksmiths, gardeners, fishers, traders, and artisans were key donors.

·        Raghuvansham, Meghadootam

·        Ritusamhara, Jyotirvidabharana

·        Devichandraguptam

I.       History and Culture of India, with special reference to Modern Period (1757 to 1947 A.D.)

Theme 2:     Nature and significance of Bhakti and Sufi Movements

Theme 3:     Contribution of Kakatiya Rulers to Language, Literature, Art, and Architecture

Theme 4:     Contribution of Vijayanagar Rulers to Language, Literature, Art, and Architecture

Theme 5:     Literature and Languages during the Delhi Sultanate

Theme 6:     Key Architectural Contributions of Medieval India

Theme 7:     Mughal Architecture and Cultural Contributions

·       Abbasid Dynasty: Overthrew – Damascus caliphate – mid-8th century; established – capital – Baghdad and ruled – 150 years.

·       Wealth and Prosperity: Abbasids controlled key territories & trade routes b/n Mediterranean and India, – safety and fostering economic prosperity.

·       Arab Traders: Dominated trade with India, focusing – commodities – coffee, horses, and spices. Established settlements – India’s western coast, facilitating cultural exchange.

·       Economic Role: Arab merchants-controlled luxury goods, traded – Constantinople and Persia, contributing – prosperity of Mecca & Medina.

·       Muhammad’s Teachings: Prophet Muhammad (570-632 A.D.) unified Arab tribes – Islam, a monotheistic religion, – political and religious void -decline of the Byzantine and Sassanid empires.

Impact on Religious Field

·        Religious Conservatism: Hinduism and Islam – different paths, leading – heightened conservatism – Hindu society.

·        Orthodox Outlook: Hindus adopted – strict rules about diet, marriage, and conduct – protect their religion.

·        Democratic Principles: Some democratic values from Islam -incorporated into Hindu society.

·        Bhakti Movement: Preached religious equality & unity of God, influenced by Islam.

·        Sufism: Influenced Hindu society, – Sufi saints attracting Hindu followers, esp- Akbar’s regime.

·        Social Reforms: Hindu leaders promoted – liberal treatment of Sudras and untouchables – safeguard their religious community.

·       Administration: Qasim granted – people of Sind -status of “zimmis” (protected subjects) & maintained a policy – non-interference – local lives and property.

·       Hindrance to Further Expansion: Muslim authority in India – checked by the powerful Pratihara kingdom, preventing further conquests.

Early Interactions and Conquests

·        Trade Relations: Arabs – trade ties with South India before Islam’s emergence.

·        Invasion of Sindh (712 A.D.): Muhammad Bin Qasim’s invasion of Sindh – first significant Islamic entry into India.

·        Muslim Rule: From 13th century -1526 A.D., Muslims – ruled large parts of India, culminating – Mughal era.

·        Bhakti and Sufi Movements: These religious movements – key role – spread of Islam in India.

Impact on Fine Arts

·        Architecture and Music: A synthesis of Hindu and Muslim styles emerged, blending Hindu elements with Persian influences.

·        Rajput Architecture: Rajput rulers and Hindu temples – imitated Mughal architectural styles, showcasing – cultural fusion.

·       Economic Motives: Arabs – improve trade, using camels and horses – estb new economic relations.

·       Tribal Dynamics: Sind – tribal region, allowing Arabs -exploit divisions and gain control more easily.

Social Impact

·        Social Structure: Islam influenced the Hindu social system, – prompting Hindu leaders – revise the Smritis to strengthen society.

·        Position of Women: Deteriorated – rise of practices like infanticide and Pardah (veiling).

·        Child Marriage: Became widespread, – young girls being married off.

·        Slavery: Became more prominent – reflecting status under Muslim rule.

·        Food Habits: Influenced – Muslim cuisine, -dishes like pulao, kebab, and kofta becoming popular among high-class Hindus.

·       Non-Sectarian: Saints transcended religious boundaries, promoting universal love and devotion.

·       Rejection of Rituals: Saints like Kabir & Guru Nanak opposed – idol worship & ritualistic practices.

·       Unity of God: Promoted belief in one God, using names – Rama, Krishna, and Allah – represent the same supreme being.

·       Salvation Through Devotion: Bhakti -viewed – most effective path – spiritual liberation, over rituals or intellectual knowledge.

·       Hindu-Muslim Integration: Aimed – fostering unity b/n Hindus and Muslims.

·       Muslim Sovereignty: Political turmoil – Muslim rule – Bhakti a spiritual refuge.

·       Vaishnava Saints: Saints – Ramanuja and Ramanand promoted Bhakti – simpler alternative to complex philosophical paths.

·       Influence of Sufi Saints: Sufis influenced the spread of Bhakti ideals through their teachings of love and devotion.

·       Rise of Saint Devotees: Saints like Kabir, Guru Nanak, and Chaitanya spread the movement through teachings and personal example.

·       Path of Devotion: Emphasized Bhakti over knowledge or action.

·       Simplicity in Religion: Advocated straightforward spiritual practices, rejecting superstitions and rituals.

·       Opposition to Idolatry: Saints – Kabir and Guru Nanak – vocal against idol worship.

·       Guru Devotion: Stressed – importance of a Guru (spiritual teacher) – attaining enlightenment.

·       Popular Language: Saints preached – vernacular languages, making – messages accessible – common people.

·       Humanitarian Values: Preached equality, compassion, & social justice, opposing caste system and promoting women’s rights.

·        Saguna School: Worship of deities – Rama and Krishna. Proponents – Vallabhacharya, Tulsidas, Surdas, Mirabai, and Chaitanya.

Early Bhakti Movements:

·        Alvars and Nayanars: Devotees – Vishnu and Shiva (respectively) from Tamil Nadu – opposed caste dominance & sang devotional hymns.

Main Proponents:

·        Adi Shankaracharya: Advocated Advaita (Monism) philosophy, emphasizing – non-dual nature of reality.

·        Ramanuja: Propagated Vishista Advaitavada (Qualified Monism) & emphasized devotion to Vishnu.

·        Madhavacharya: Preached Dvaita (Dualism), emphasizing -separation b/n soul and God.

·        Vallabhacharya: Promoted Krishna Bhakti and Shuddha Advaita, advocating – path of grace (Pushtimarga).

Nirankar Bhakti Movement:

·        Major Exponents: Ramananda, Kabir, and Nanak, -emphasized devotion to a formless God & opposed ritualism.

·        Wahadat-ul-Wajud (Unity of Being): The belief – oneness of God & ultimate goal of realizing -unity with the Divine.

·        Introduction in India: Spread – Persia (11^th century) serving -bridge b/n Islam and local traditions.

Early Saints:

·        Shaikh Ismail of Lahore: An early Sufi saint -converted many Hindus, playing a key role – spreading Islamic teachings non-coercively.

Silisilahs (Orders):

·        Ba-shara: Sufi orders that adhered to Sharia law.

·        Be-shara: Orders that did not follow Sharia strictly.

·       Founder: Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti.

·       Teachings: Emphasized love, compassion, service to humanity, and renouncing wealth.

Suhrawardi Order:

·       Founder: Shaikh Shihab-ud-din Suhrawardi.

·       Focus: Engaged in wealth and political involvement while maintaining religious practices.

Firdausia Order:

·       Active in: Bihar.

·       Prominent Saint: Shaikh Harf-ud-din Yahya.

Qadiri Order:

·       Promoted by: Shah Niamatullah Makhdum Jilani.

·       Beliefs: Opposed music and singing.

Nakshabandi Order:

·       Popularized by: Khwaja Baqi Billah.

·       Beliefs: Most orthodox, emphasizing strict adherence to Islamic law.

Shattari Order:

·       Brought to India by: Shah Abdullah during Lodi Dynasty.

·       Notable Saint: Muhammad Ghauth.

·        Service to Society: Sufis closely engaged with the poor and downtrodden, fostering compassion and humanity.

·        Promoted Equality: Encouraged brotherhood and equality among people, transcending religious barriers.

·        Cultural Impact: Contributed to the growth of regional literature and influenced Indian society by fostering religious tolerance.

·       Prataparudra I (Rudradeva): Declared sovereignty, ruled until 1195 A.D., first to use Telugu – official inscriptions.

·       Ganapathi Deva and Rudramadevi: Notable rulers – Rudramadevi – praised by Marco Polo for her governance.

·       Capitals: Before Warangal, Hanamakonda served as – capital.

Language and Literature:

·        Telugu Language: The Kakatiya rulers promoted the Telugu language – inscriptions & governance, elevating -status.

Architectural Influences and Styles:

·        Chalukya Influence: Kakatiya architecture shows Chalukyan elements – structural and ornamental details.

·        Hoysala Resemblance: Similar – Hoysala architecture, featuring intricate carvings & complex layouts, indicating cultural exchange.

Tanks

Ramappa and Pakala Lakes

·        Purpose: Constructed to support agriculture and settlements.

·        Significance: Ensured water availability and contributed to regional prosperity through innovative methods.

2.      Trikutalayas: 3 temples conjoined – common mandapa (hall).

3.      Tank, Temple, and Town Policy: Tanks were built next to temples – promote the prosperity of towns.

4.      Architectural Styles: Combined North Indian Bhumija style with Dravidian style.

5.      Mini Shrines: Shrines -extended bases and eaves surrounding the temple’s exterior.

6.      Star-Shaped Plinths: Temples were constructed – high star-shaped plinths.

7.      Lathe-Turned Pillars: Pillars featured square, octagonal, and circular parts, finely turned.

8.      Perforated Screens: Found – entrance of garbhagrihas (sanctums).

9.      Simple Pyramidal Vimanas: Stepped pattern Vimanas (temple spires).

10.   Monolithic Elephants: Placed – temple entrances as guardians.

11.   Sandbox Technology: Used for earthquake-resistant foundations in temples.

Kakatiya Art

Paintings and Metal Casting

·        Patronage: Vishwakarmas were patronized for brassware and metal objects.

·        Significance: Known for exquisite statuary and murals, detailed metalwork, and sculptures.

Cheriyala Paintings

·        Type: Traditional scroll paintings with vibrant colors and storytelling.

·        Recognition: Awarded a Geographical Indicator (GI) tag for cultural significance.

·        Location: Hanamakonda.

·        Features: Star-shaped plinth, Trikutalayam style, intricate carvings, & renowned – thousand uniquely designed pillars.

·        Significance: Pinnacle – Kakatiya craftsmanship.

Warangal Fort

·        Key Features: Ruins – Swayambhu Shiva Temple & famous Keerthi Toranas.

·        Importance: Symbolizes Kakatiya architectural grandeur & strategic significance.

Ramappa Temple

·        Location: Palampet.

·        Features: Star-shaped platform, intricate carvings, detailed sculptures, lightweight bricks, and sandbox technology.

·        Significance: Testament – Kakatiya architectural and artistic excellence.

Forts

Ramagiri Fort

·        Location: Peddapalli.

·        Features: Includes temples, wells, & stables.

·        Significance: Key defense fort – 12th century.

Killa Ghanpur

·        Location: Mahabubnagar.

·        Features: Built – Gona Gana Reddy, – temples and palace structures.

·        Significance: Example -strategic Kakatiya military architecture.

Medak Fort

·        Location: Telangana.

·        Features: Known for its impressive entrances and defensive structures.

·        Significance: Strategically located fort with symbolic carvings.

Golkonda Fort

·        Location: Hyderabad.

·        History: Originally built by Kakatiyas, later developed by Bahmani and Qutub Shahi rulers.

·        Significance: Renowned for robust defenses and strategic importance.

·        Location: Hanamakonda.

·        Features: Originally- Jain shrine, later converted into – Hindu temple.

·        Depicts Jain Tirthankaras & Hindu deities, reflecting religious transitions.

Kashivishvesvaraalayam

·        Location: Kalpagoor.

·        Features: Trikutalayam complex, beautifully carved Nandi and mandapa.

·        Significance: Integration-multiple deities, showcasing Kakatiya architectural innovation.

Ganapesvaraalayam

·        Location: Ghanpur.

·        Features: Bracket figures, intricate carvings, and multiple shrines.

·        Significance: Dedicated – elaborate temple architecture.

Chennakesava Temple

·        Location: Pillalamarri.

·        Features: Similar – Ramappa Temple but simpler, -frescoes and inscriptions.

·        Significance: Important specimen – Kakatiya art and architecture.

Sri Mallikarjuna Swamy Temple

·        Location: Inavolu.

·        Features: Massive toranas and 108 pillars.

·        Significance: Reflects – grandeur -Kakatiya architecture, emphasizing monumental gateways.

Kakatiya rulers – promoted literature, encouraging works – Sanskrit and Telugu

Notable Literary Figures and Works

Krishna Deva Raya:

·       Authored Amukthamalyadha (Telugu), Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam (Sanskrit).

·       Known as Andhra Bhoja for his patronage of literature and arts.

·        Key Features: Tall Raya Gopurams (gateway towers), Kalyanamandapams (marriage halls) with carved pillars, animal motifs (notably horses) on pillars.

·        Mandapams: Large halls used for seating deities during festivals, some –100 or 1000 pillars.

Key Temples:

·       Hazara Ramaswamy Temple

·       Vittalaswamy Temple

·       Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha Temples in Kanchipuram

·       Raya Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai and Chidambaram.

·       Hampi: Ruins of city showcasing this style.

·        Sculpture: Pillars intricately carved with detailed figures and horses.

Metal Images

• Notable examples: Krishna Deva Raya and his queens’ metal images at Tirupati.

Key Contributions to Persian Literature

Amir Khusrau

• New Era: Persian literature flourished under Amir Khusrau’s contributions.
• Innovations: Introduced new Persian literary styles through his poetry and historical writings, enriching the cultural landscape.

Court Chronicles

• Significance: Rise of court chronicles documenting the political, social, and cultural history of the Sultanate.
• Authors: Written by court historians detailing rulers’ reigns.

Ziauddin Barani

• Major Works: Tarikh-i Firozshahi, Fatwa-i Jahandari.
• Critique: Notable for his critical observations, especially of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

Minhaj-us-Siraj

• Tabaqat-i Nasiri: Comprehensive history of Muslim dynasties up to 1260, offering valuable insights into political landscapes.

Abu Bakr

• Chach Nama: First geographical treatise detailing the conquest of Sindh and Muslim expansion.

Zia Nakshabi

• Tuti Nama: First Persian translation of Sanskrit stories, highlighting cultural exchange between India and Persia.

Emergence of Urdu

• 14th Century: Urdu began to emerge, blending Persian, Arabic, and local Indian languages.

Growth of Regional Languages

• Bengali: Flourished in eastern India, developing a rich literary tradition.
• Gujarati: Gained prominence in western India, contributing to regional literature.
• Marathi: Developed in the Deccan region, becoming an important medium for literature.
• Telugu: Advanced in southern India, enhancing the cultural heritage.Bottom of Form

·       Sanskrit: Important scholarly language, many works translated into Persian.

·       Regional Languages: Significant growth in Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani, and Gujarati.

Key Contributions and Works

·        Development of Urdu: Emerged as a common communication language among people with different dialects.

·        Babur: Wrote Tuzuk-i-Baburi (autobiography) – Turki; Persian translation Baburnama – Abdul Rahim Khan.

·        Abul Fazl: Authored Akbarnama (history of Akbar) & Ain-i-Akbari (administration).

·        Jahangir: Wrote – autobiography Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri.

·        Mutamid Khan: Wrote Iqbalnama-i-Jahangir (biography of Jahangir).

·        Shah Jahan’s Biographies: Padshahnama by Abdul Hamid Lahori and Shahjahan Nama – Inayat Khan.

·        Dara Shikoh: Translated Bhagavad Gita and Upanishads into Persian; famous work Majma-ul-Bahrain (The Confluence of Two Oceans).

·        Badauni: Critic of Akbar; translated Mahabharata into Persian as Razanamah.

Regional and Hindi Literature

·        Hindi Poetry: Mughal court patronized Hindi poets from Akbar’s time. The most influential was Tulsidas, who wrote Ramcharitmanas (Hindi version of Ramayana).

·        Jaganath Pandithraya: Court poet of Shah Jahan, authored two Sanskrit works: Ganga Lahari and Rasagangadharam.

·       Ahom Style: Fusion -Upper Burma & Bengal styles. Kamakhya Temple (Guwahati, 17th century) is a prime example.

·       Siddheshvara Mahadeva Temple: Located- Barakar, featuring early Pala style with a tall curving shikhara.

·       Odisha Temples: Known – rekhapida, pidhadeul, & khakra styles. Major examples: Bhubaneswar, Puri, and Konark.

·        Kashmir Temples: Pandrethan Temple (dedicated to Shiva) built on a plinth in a tank, showcases Kashmir’s unique style.

·        Kumaon Temples: Jageshwar and Champavat are examples of nagara architecture.

Vijayanagara Architecture (1336–1565 AD)

·        Imperial Style: Fusion of Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola styles.

·        Notable Temples: Hampi ruins, Vittalaswamy, and Hazara Ramaswamy temples, known for large halls and intricately decorated pillars.

Rashtrakuta and Hoysala Contributions

·        Kailashnath Temple, Ellora: A monolithic dravida-style temple showcasing Rashtrakuta ingenuity.

·        Hoysaleshvara Temple, Halebid: Built in dark schist stone, known for star-like ground plans and intricate carvings, dedicated to Shiva as Nataraja.

·        Hoysala Temples: Chennakesava Temple (Belur), Hoysaleswara Temple (Halebidu), and Kesava Temple (Somanathapura). famous for detailed craftsmanship.

Māru-Gurjara Temple Architecture

·        Origins: Developed in 6th century Rajasthan. Known for Maha-Maru and Maru-Gurjara styles, excelling in sculptural treatment and intricate designs.

·        Double Dome: First used in Sikandar Lodi’s grave, perfected in Humayun’s tomb.

Notable Structures

·        Qutub Complex: Includes Qutub Minar and Alai Darwaza, foundational works of Delhi Sultanate architecture.

·        Tughlaqabad: Known for stone walls and Sultan Ghiyasuddin’s tomb.

·        Alai Minar: Unfinished project by Alauddin Khilji, showcasing ambitious architectural efforts.

• Limited Constructions: Babur’s contributions were minimal.
• Notable Works: Kabuli Bagh Mosque, Ram Bagh Garden – Charbagh style.

Humayun (1530-1540; 1555-1556)

• Humayun’s Tomb: Precursor – Taj Mahal; built by widow Hamida Begum, designed by Persian architect Mirak Mirza Ghiyas.
• Key Features: Indian and Persian styles, red sandstone, white marble, and Charbagh garden design.

Sher Shah Suri (Sur Dynasty, 1540-1545)

• Key Constructions: Qila-e-Quanah Mosque – Old Fort (Delhi), Rohtas Fort (Pakistan), Grand Trunk Road.
• Transition: Shift from Lodhi to Mughal architecture.

Akbar (1556-1605)

• Fatehpur Sikri: First planned Mughal city; major landmarks – Buland Darwaza, Jama Masjid, Diwan-i-aam, and Tomb of Saint Salim Chishti.
• Style: Blend of Persian, Central Asian, and Indian elements using red sandstone.

• Focus on Painting: Jahangir emphasized paintings, miniature art.
• Notable Works: Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula (Pietra-dura work), Akbar’s Tomb (Sikandra).

Shah Jahan (1628-1658)

• Taj Mahal: World-famous tomb built in memory of Mumtaz Mahal.
• Key Constructions: Jama Masjid, Moti Masjid (Agra Fort), Sheesh Mahal (Lahore Fort), Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi), and Pietra dura inlay technique.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

• Simplicity: Focus on simpler designs, notable examples include Pearl Mosque in the Red Fort and Bibi ka Maqbara in Aurangabad.
• Decline: His reign saw a decline in the grandeur of Mughal architecture.

• Cultural Synthesis: Fusion – Indian, Persian, and Turkish architectural elements – unique Indo-Islamic style.
• Deccan Influence: The Mughal and Sultanate periods fostered cultural exchange in architecture, literature, and fine arts.

Mughal Fine Arts

• Painting and Calligraphy: Flourished under the Mughal court; intricate manuscripts, detailed miniature paintings.
• Pietra Dura: Inlay technique using semi-precious stones, prominent in the Taj Mahal.
• Cultural Exchange: Trade routes facilitated – exchange of artistic ideas with Southeast Asia.

I.       History and Culture of India, with special reference to Modern Period (1757 to 1947 A.D.)

Theme 2:     Anglo-Mysore Wars

Theme 3:     Anglo-Maratha Wars

Theme 4:     Annexation of Punjab by the British Empire, Anglo-Sikh Wars

Theme 5:     Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule: Land Revenue Settlements in British India– Commercialization of Agriculture;

Theme 6:     Rise of Landless Agrarian Labour; Famines and Poverty; De-industrialization; Decline of Traditional Crafts; Drain of Wealth; Growth of Trade and Commerce- Economic Transformation of India; Railroads, Transport and Communication Network- Telegraph and Postal Services.

·        1609: Captain Hawkins seeks trading post in Surat, but permission denied.

·        1612: Jahangir grants farman for a factory in Surat.

·        1615: Sir Thomas Roe secures permission for factories in Agra, Ahmedabad, and Broach.

·        Bombay acquired from Charles II, Madras founded in 1639, Calcutta established- 1690 by Job Charnock.

·        Background: Part of the Austrian War of Succession.

·        Result: English defeat French at Battle of Adyar; ends with Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.

Second Carnatic War (1749-1754):

·        Background: French support Muzafar Jang (Nizam) and Chanda Sahib (Nawab), British back Anwar Uddin.

·        Result: Robert Clive captures Arcot, war ends with Treaty of Pondicherry.

Third Carnatic War (1758-1763):

·        Background: Linked to the Seven Years War.

·        Result: British defeat Count de Lally at Wandiwash; Treaty of Paris restricts French to Pondicherry, Karaikkal, Mahe, and Yenam.

·       Conflict between Siraj-ud-Daula (Nawab of Bengal) and English East India Company over -unauthorized fortifications and misuse of trade privileges.

·       The Black Hole of Calcutta incident was the immediate trigger.

Course:

·       Fought on June 23, 1757, led by Robert Clive against Siraj-ud-Daula.

·       Mir Jafar, commander of Siraj’s army, defected after being bribed by the British.

Result:

·       British victory laid the foundation of British rule in India.

·       Mir Jafar was made Nawab of Bengal, serving as a British puppet.

·       British gained control over Bengal’s resources, setting the stage for further expansion.

·       After Plassey, Mir Qasim replaced –Mir Jafar but sought independence from British influence.

·       A coalition – Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula (Nawab of Oudh), & Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II opposed British.

Course:

·       Fought – October 22, 1764, near Buxar.

·       British forces led-Hector Munro faced the combined armies of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula, and Shah Alam II.

·       Despite being outnumbered, British forces won through superior tactics.

Result:

·       British victory firmly established their military dominance in India.

·       The Treaty of Allahabad (1765) granted the British Diwani rights (revenue collection) over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, giving them control over finances and administration.

·       Robert Clive returned as Governor of Bengal, implementing the Dual System of Administration, consolidating British control.

·       Threatened British – French ties & control -Malabar trade.

·       British allied – Nizam & Marathas.

·       Appeared before Madras, causing panic.

·       Treaty of Madras signed (1769).

·       British promised -assist Haider if attacked.

·       Haider allied with French after British tried capturing Mahe.

·       Nizam and Marathas initially sided with Haider.

·       Haider died (1782), Tipu Sultan continued war.

·       Treaty of Mangalore signed.

·       No clear victor.

·       British allied with Nizam and Marathas.

·       War driven by unresolved conflicts from earlier treaties.

·       Lord Cornwallis captured Bangalore, attacked Seringapatam.

·       Treaty signed.

·       Paid war indemnity and gave hostages.

·       Lord Wellesley used Subsidiary Alliance to force Tipu’s submission.

·       Fear of Tipu’s ties with French increased.

·       Tipu defeated by British under General Stuart, General Harris, and Arthur Wellesley.

·       Tipu killed in May 1799.

·       British took Mysore and gave control to Wodeyars under Subsidiary Alliance.

·       French influence ended.

·       Barabhai, led by Nana Phadnavis, supported Narayanrao’s son.

·       Raghunathrao sought British help.

·       Marathas defeated British at Wadgaon (1779).

·       Marathas regained other territories.

·       Peace agreed between Marathas and British.

·       Treaty of Bassein signed in 1802.

·       Holkar failed to unite other Marathas.

·       Separate subsidiary treaties signed.

·       British gained key strategic advantages.

·       Pindari raids were a pretext for British intervention.

·       British decisively defeated Maratha forces.

·       Maratha Confederacy dissolved.

·       Satara under Pratap Singh established.

·       British paramountcy over Maratha region fully established.

·       Ended Sikh sovereignty and expanded British territory.

·       Bhai Mani Singh united Sikhs in 1721, forming the Dal Khalsa in 1784 under Kapur Singh.

·       Consolidated political power in Punjab, controlling Lahore and Amritsar.

·       Limited Ranjit Singh’s expansion to the east of Punjab.

·       Heightened tensions leading to Anglo-Sikh Wars.

·       Post-Ranjit Singh power struggle.

·       English troops increased near Lahore, raising tensions.

·       Lahore fell in 1846 without a fight.

·       Jalandhar Doab annexed.

·       Sikh army reduced.

·       Kashmir sold to Gulab Singh.

·       Rani Jindan treated harshly.

·       Governor Mulraj of Multan killed two English officers.

·       Sikh army surrendered at Rawalpindi.

·       Three-member board set up for governance.

·       John Lawrence became first Chief Commissioner (1853).

·       Dalhousie recognized and promoted.

·        Economic Backbone: Agriculture central – India’s economy; livelihood tied to crops.

·        Balance: Until 18th century, balanced agriculture & handicrafts; globally recognized – both sectors.

Impact of British Rule on Handicrafts and Agriculture:

• Destruction of Handicrafts: British dismantled Indian handicrafts industry.
• Agrarian Changes: British introduced land tenure systems; prioritized revenue over cultivator welfare.

Land Tenure Systems (British Rule)

1.      Zamindari System (Permanent Settlement) – 19% of British Territory:

·       Regions: Bengal, Bihar, Banaras, Northern Western Provinces, Northern Karnataka.

·       Zamindars: Collected revenue, paid a fixed amount to British, often exploiting peasants.

2.      Mahalwari System – 30% of British Territory:

·       Regions: North Western Provinces, Central Provinces, Punjab.

·       Collective Responsibility: Village heads (Mahal) responsible for revenue collection.

3.      Ryotwari System – 51% of British Territory:

·       Regions: Bombay, Madras Presidencies, Assam.

·       Direct Settlement: Ryots (cultivators) paid taxes directly to the government.

Izaredari System (1773 – Warren Hastings):

• First British Land Tenure System: Introduced in Bengal.
• Auction Revenue Rights: Izaredars collected revenue; often exploited peasants for profit.
• Diwani Rights: Secured by Robert Clive for revenue collection in Bengal (1765).
• Five-Year Revenue Settlements: Initiated by Hastings, later reverted to annual.
• Focus on Profits: Izaredars, as contractors, prioritized profits over peasant welfare.

·        Key Contributors: Sir John Shore, James Grant.

·        Decennial Settlement: Initially – 10-year arrangement, later made permanent.

Key Features:

1.      Zamindars as Landowners:

·       Officially recognized as landowners.

·       Paid fixed land revenue to the East India Company.

2.      Fixed Revenue (89% to Company):

·       Land revenue fixed permanently, preventing future increases.

·       Zamindars retained 1/11th of revenue; 10/11th submitted to the Company.

3.      Ryots as Tenants:

·       Ryots (tillers) treated as tenants under zamindars.

4.      Removal of Judicial/Administrative Roles:

·       Zamindars lost judicial and administrative functions.

5.      Absentee Landlordism:

·       Many zamindars moved to urban areas, neglected land improvements.

6.      Feudalism Entrenched:

·       System deepened feudalism, worsened economic disparity among peasants.

7.      Revenue System Issues:

·       Limited government income due to fixed revenue.

·       Zamindars focused on revenue collection over agricultural development.

·        Introduced by Sir Thomas Munro in Madras Presidency.

·        Direct Ownership: Peasants recognized as landowners; no intermediaries (no Zamindars).

Key Features:

1.      Direct Revenue Collection:

·       Peasants paid land revenue directly to the government.

·       Protected from eviction if land revenue was paid.

2.      Fixed Land Revenue (30-Year Terms):

·       Revenue rates fixed for 30 years; reassessed after this period.

·       Government’s share set at 55% of produce (highest ever recorded).

3.      Land Rights:

·       Peasants could sub-let, transfer, mortgage, or sell land.

·       Security of tenure ensured as long as revenue was paid.

4.      Fixed Period Land Revenue:

·       Revenue rates fixed for 20-40 years; individual peasants directly responsible.

Challenges:

·        Heavy Tax Burden: High land revenue reduced incentives for cultivation.

·        Harsh Revenue Collection: Severe methods employed by officials for defaulters or delayed payments.

• Regions: Punjab, Central Provinces, N-W Provinces.
• Introduced by Holt Mackenzie (1822 Regulation): Early 19th-century British system.

Key Features:

1.      Village (Mahal) as Revenue Unit:

·       Land collectively owned – village community.

·       Village community (through Lambardar or local headman) responsible – revenue collection.

2.      Revenue Settlement:

·       Comprehensive land measurement – revenue assessment.

·       Government benefited most; primary focus on revenue collection.

3.      Administration:

·       Village headman (Lambardar) acted -intermediary between government and villagers.

Impact:

• Improved irrigation but benefited the government more than the villagers.
• System designed for efficient revenue collection.

Rise of Landless Agrarian Labor, Famines, and Poverty

Impact of British Rule on Agrarian Relations:

1.      Destruction of Village Communities:

·       Disrupted traditional, self-sufficient economies.

·       Integration into global markets caused local industries and crafts to decline.

2.      Formation of Land Markets and Rising Rents:

·       Land commodified; emergence of land market.

·       Zamindars raised rents to maximize revenue.

3.      Indebtedness:

·       High land revenue forced peasants into debt.

·       Resulted in widespread rural indebtedness and loss of land, creating landless laborers.

4.      Layers of Intermediaries:

·       Multiple intermediaries emerged, each extracting share of produce.

·       Increased peasants’ reliance on moneylenders.

5.      Frequent Famines:

·       Commercialization of agriculture and revenue demands reduced food security.

·       Frequent, severe famines exacerbated poverty.

6.      Impoverishment:

·       High rents, debt, loss of land, and famines led to widespread impoverishment.

·       Peasants became landless laborers, dependent on seasonal agricultural work.

Permanent Settlement (1793):

·       Implemented in Bengal and Bihar.

·       Zamindars became landowners; fixed land revenue.

·       Result: Exploitation of peasants, rise of landless labor.

·       Bengal Famine (1770): Massive loss of life, widespread poverty.

Northern & Central India:

Mahalwari System (early 19th century):

·       Introduced in Punjab and parts of United Provinces.

·       Village communities responsible for revenue; heavy demands.

·       Peasants often sold or mortgaged land, leading to landlessness.

Western India:

Ryotwari System:

·       Implemented in Bombay and Madras presidencies.

·       Recognized individual cultivators as landowners, but imposed high revenue.

·       Commercialization of agriculture led to indebtedness and land transfers.

·       Deccan Riots (1875): Resulted from peasant indebtedness and exploitation by moneylenders.

Southern India:

·       Ryotwari and Permanent Settlement (Madras Presidency):

·       Increased revenue demands and landlessness.

·       Agricultural commercialization: Focus on cotton, groundnut, oilseeds; rise of rich peasants and landless laborers.

·       Great Depression (1930s): Further impoverished rural population, increased indebtedness and agrarian distress.

·        Focus on trade initially; later aimed for monopoly over Indian trade.

·        India had global fame for handicrafts: textiles (e.g., muslin of Dacca, carpets of Lahore, shawls of Kashmir, Banaras embroidery), ivory goods, woodworks, jewelry.

Impact of British Rule on Handicrafts:

1.      Decline in Indian Handicrafts:

·       East India Company policies hurt Indian handicrafts.

·       Influx of cheap British goods led to a decline in Indian products domestically and internationally.

2.      Promotion of British Goods:

·       1769: Raw silk cultivation promoted in Bengal; restrictions on Indian finished silk.

·       1813: Strategies to increase consumption of British finished goods.

·       1835: Tariff policies—15% export duty on Indian textiles, 2.5% import duty on British textiles.

Transition to Machine-Made Goods:

• Industrial Revolution (Europe): Introduction of power looms replaced handlooms; goods produced faster, cheaper.

Improved Communication & Transport:

• Railways and steamer services revolutionized trade.
• Concrete roads connected agricultural hinterlands, boosting British imports.
• Result: Job losses among Indian artisans/craftsmen due to increased British goods and reduced local demand.

Civil Services Reform:

·        Organized civil services; vital to British colonial administration.

Cornwallis Code:

·        Introduced administrative and legal reforms.

·        Separation of revenue and justice administration.

·        European subjects brought under Indian court jurisdiction.

·        Govt officials answerable to civil courts for actions in office, emphasizing sovereignty of law.

William Bentinck (Governor-General, 1828-33)

Administrative Reforms:

·        Abolished Circuit Courts, transferred functions to Collectors.

·        Established Sadar Diwani Adalat and Sadar Nizamat Adalat at Allahabad.

Language Reforms:

·        Replaced Persian with English as official court language.

·        Allowed choice of Persian or vernacular languages in courts.

Legal Codification: Initiated codification of laws leading to:

·       Civil Procedure Code (1859)

·       Indian Penal Code (1860)

·       Criminal Procedure Code (1861)

Law Commission

Establishment:

·        Aimed – codification & consolidation of Indian laws.

·        Added a fourth regular member to the Governor-General’s Council for legal expertise.

Lord Macaulay:

·        First appointed fourth ordinary Member.

·        Key role in drafting the Indian Penal Code (1860).

• Purpose: Transport raw materials, move British troops.
• Impact: Facilitated resource extraction, promoted internal trade, and hurt local industries.

Roads and Highways:

• Purpose: Administrative control and economic exploitation.
• Impact: Improved troop movement, commercialized agriculture, neglected local needs.

Ports:

• Purpose: Develop Bombay, Calcutta, Madras for trade.
• Impact: Increased exports, led to economic drain and decline of local industries.

Telegraph & Postal Services:

·        Purpose: Enhance communication for British administration.

·        Impact: Strengthened British control, supported British businesses, limited local benefits.

Irrigation & Agriculture:

·        Purpose: Increase output of cash crops (cotton, tea, opium).

·        Impact: Boosted productivity, caused food shortages, and created economic disparities.

I.       History and Culture of India, with special reference to Modern Period (1757 to 1947 A.D.)

Theme 2:     Civil Rebellions and Tribal Uprisings in the Nineteenth Century

Theme 3:     Peasant Movements in the Nineteenth Century

Theme 4:     Socio- Religious Movements

Theme 5:     Factors responsible for the rise of Indian Nationalism

Theme 6:     Socio-Cultural Reform Movements and their Leaders and Anti-Caste Movements

Theme 7:     Contrasting Strategies of Mahatma Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar in Achieving Social Reform

Theme 8:     Leadership of Subhash Chandra Bose and Its Influence on the Indian National Movement

·        May 11, 1857: Sepoys – Meerut marched to Delhi, marking the beginning of the revolt.

·        Revolt was a symbol of India’s collective aspiration for sovereignty.

Pre-Existing Resentment:

·        Historical Grievances: Annexation of Punjab and Sikh Empire fostered long-standing resentment.

·        Local Grievances: High taxes, harsh treatment by British officials fueled discontent.

Immediate Triggers:

·        Barrackpore Incident: Mangal Pandey’s mutiny at Barrackpore (early 1857) inflamed tensions.

·        Meerut Mutiny (May 10, 1857): Sepoys refused to use greased cartridges, killed British officers, released prisoners.

·        Support for Bahadur Shah: Hindu sepoys in Meerut and Delhi backed Bahadur Shah II as Emperor; cow slaughter was banned in their areas.

·        Annexation of Princely States: Doctrine of Lapse led to discontent (e.g., Annexation of Awadh in 1856).

·        Subsidiary Alliance System: Made princely states subordinate to the British.

·        Lord Dalhousie’s Reforms: Doctrine of Lapse, confiscation of Jhansi, and new Enfield rifles triggered anger.

·        Racial Discrimination: Widened gap between Indian sepoys and British officers.

Economic Causes:

·        Economic Exploitation: Heavy land revenue and taxes drained India’s wealth.

·        Disruption of Traditional Economy: British policies caused agrarian distress and unemployment among artisans.

Social and Cultural Causes:

·        Religious Insensitivity: British seen as undermining Indian culture and religion (e.g., annexation of Awadh viewed as an affront to Islamic authority).

·        Sepoy Discontent: Forced to cross the sea and use cartridges greased with animal fat against their religious beliefs.

Military Causes:

·        Cartridge Controversy: New Enfield rifles cartridges, rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat, offended both Hindu and Muslim sepoys.

·        Mistrust Between Sepoys and Officers: Sepoys feared forced conversion to Christianity and resented British officers.

·       Bahadur Shah II (Zafar): Nominal leader, gave legitimacy to the revolt.

·       Bakht Khan: Took real control on July 3, 1857, after leading Bareilly soldiers to Delhi.

2.      Kanpur:

·       Nana Saheb: Led Kanpur rebellion, attacked British under Sir Hugh Wheeler (June 1857).

·       Tatya Tope: Supported Nana Saheb in capturing Kanpur; later fought in Gwalior.

·       Sir Colin Campbell: Recaptured Kanpur.

3.      Lucknow:

·       Begum Hazrat Mahal: Led the rebellion, her son Birjis Qadir proclaimed Nawab.

·       Henry Havelock, James Outram, Sir Colin Campbell: Led British forces to relieve the siege of Lucknow.

4.      Bareilly:

·       Khan Bahadur: Led resistance in Bareilly.

·       Sir Colin Campbell: Recaptured Bareilly after heavy fighting.

5.      Jhansi:

·       Rani Lakshmibai: Defended Jhansi fiercely, led the rebellion in Bundelkhand; fought in Battle of Jhansi against Hugh Rose.

6.      Bihar:

·       Kunwar Singh: Led guerrilla warfare in Jagdishpur, fought across Mirzapur, Banda, Kanpur, Rewa, and Arrah.

·       Sir Colin Campbell: Suppressed the rebellion in Bihar.

7.      Gwalior:

·       Tatya Tope: Led guerrilla warfare in Gwalior, engaged British after retreating from Kanpur.

8.      Faizabad:

·       Maulvi Ahmadullah: Led fierce resistance, originally from Madras, relocated to Awadh.

·       Sir Colin Campbell: Led efforts to pacify Faizabad.

Outcome:

Turning Point: The revolt marked a major uprising, setting the stage for future resistance against British rule and India’s eventual quest for independence.

·        August 2, 1858: British Parliament passed the Better Government of India Act.

·        Queen Victoria declared sovereign of British India; end of East India Company rule.

·        Secretary of State for India appointed; British Crown assumed direct control.

Queen’s Proclamation (November 1, 1858):

·        Proclaimed by Lord Canning at Allahabad durbar.

·        Governor-General became Viceroy.

·        Promised no further annexations and respect for native princes.

·        Indian states to acknowledge British paramountcy.

Religious Freedom and Legal Equality:

• Religious freedom guaranteed for Indians.
• Equal protection under law for all races and creeds.
• Equal opportunities in government services promised.

Reorganization of the Army:

·        Post-revolt, Indian Army reorganized with “division and counterpoise” strategy.

·        Reduction of Indian soldiers, increase in European troops.

·        “Divide and rule” policy: recruitment focused on martial races (Punjab, Nepal, NW frontier).

·        Army isolated from civilians.

Reforms and Racial Divide:

·        Victorian liberalism waned; conservative, non-interference approach adopted.

·        End of reform era; British attitude shifted to autocracy.

·        Policy led to frustration among the educated Indian middle class, sparking modern nationalism.

Impact on British-Indian Relations:

·        Deepened racial divide and implementation of “divide and rule”.

·        Systematic economic exploitation intensified.

·        British portrayal of Indians as subhuman fueled imperialist attitudes and racial hatred.

Legacy of the Revolt:

·        Racial hatred and suspicion persisted b/n British and Indians.

·        Widening gulf between rulers and ruled contributed to political unrest, leading to later demonstrations and violence.

2.      Exploitative Revenue System: New land revenue systems and heavy taxation undermined tribal land rights.

3.      Forest Policies: Restricted tribal access to forests, affecting hunting, gathering, and agriculture.

4.      Intermediaries: Introduction of traders, moneylenders, and oppressive officials worsened tribal conditions.

5.      Cultural Suppression:

Missionary activities threatened tribal cultures and beliefs.

Civil Rebellions and Tribal Uprisings

Sanyasi Revolt (1763-1800):

• Cause: 1770 Bengal famine, British economic policies.
• Leaders: Evicted peasants, small zamindars, disbanded soldiers.
• Suppression: By Warren Hastings.

Pahariya Rebellion (1778):

• Cause: British extension of agriculture into Pahariya territories.
• Response: Brutal force, later pacification policy offering allowances to Pahariya chiefs.

• Cause: Oppressive revenue farming system by Warren Hastings.
• Oppressor: Major Alexander Hannay.

Revolt of Raja of Vizianagaram (1794):

• Cause: EIC tribute demand from Raja Vijayaramaraju.
• Outcome: Raja died in Battle of Padmanabham; Vizianagaram under Company rule.

Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja Resistance (1797, 1800-05):

• Leader: Pazhassi Raja resisted British in Kottayam.
• Outcome: Died in a gunfight.

Chuar Uprising (1767-1802):

• Leader: Durjan Singh.
• Cause: British land seizures; guerrilla warfare by tribal communities.

Midnapore and Dhalbhum Revolt (1766-74):

·        Cause: Rebellion against EIC land revenue system.

·        Outcome: Zamindars lost their lands.

• Leader: Wazir Ali Khan.
• Cause: Killed British resident, Massacre of Benares.

Ahom Revolt (1828):

• Leader: Gomdhar Konwar.
• Cause: British attempt to annex Ahom territories post-Anglo-Burma war.

Pagal Panthis (1830-40s):

• Leader: Karam Shah and Tipu.
• Cause: Resistance against oppressive zamindars in Mymensingh.

Faraizi Revolt (1838-1857):

• Leader: Followers of Haji Shariatullah.
• Cause: Religious, social, and political changes, expel British from Bengal.

Ganjam and Gumsur Uprisings (1800, 1835-37):

• Leader: Strikara Bhanj and Dhananjay Bhanj.

Palamau Uprising (1800-02):

• Leader: Bhukhan Singh, Chero chief.
• Cause: Resistance against agrarian system.

Moamarias Revolt (1769-99):

• Cause: Revolt by low-caste peasants against Ahom Kings of Assam.
• Outcome: Weakened Ahoms, survived with British help.

• Leaders: Kattabomman Nayakan, Oomathurai.
• Cause: Oppressive land revenue demands in Dindigul and Malabar.

Kutch or Cutch Rebellion (1816-32):

·        Leader: Raja Bharmal II.

·        Cause: British interference in internal feuds.

Kuka Revolt (1840):

• Leaders: Bhagat Jawahar Mal, Baba Ram Singh.
• Cause: Religious, social, political change, support for Swadeshi and non-cooperation.

Surat Salt Agitations (1840s):

• Cause: Resistance to increased salt duty in 1844.
• Outcome: Europeans attacked, salt levy withdrawn.

Kolhapur & Savantvadi Revolts (Post-1844):

• Cause: Reorganization of Kolhapur state, rebellion by Gadkari.

Wahabi Movement:

• Leader: Syed Ahmed, inspired by Abdul Wahab and Shah Waliullah.
• Cause: Return to pure Islam, anti-British sentiments.

Haryana Uprisings (1803-1810):

• Leaders: Sikh chiefs of Ambala, Karnal, Thanesar, and Bhatti Rajputs.
• Cause: Opposition to British rule; led to long conflict.

1.      Colonial Influence: Introduction of Western ideas such as liberty, equality, democracy, and justice.

2.      Religious and Social Issues:  Prevalence of superstitions and practices like Sati, child marriage, polygamy, and caste discrimination.

3.      Status of Women: Female infanticide, child marriage, and prohibition of widow remarriage were widespread; Sati system prevalent.

4.      Spread of Education and Awareness: Scholars studied Indian history and culture, instilling pride in Indian civilization and promoting reforms.

5.      Nationalism and Global Awareness: Growing awareness of nationalism and democracy led to efforts to reform social and religious institutions.

6.      Influence of Scholars and Intellectuals: Key intellectuals like Raja Ram Mohan Roy led the Indian Renaissance, focusing on cultural revival and reform.

7.      Missionary Activity: Christian missionaries spread Western education, influencing social reforms in regions like Bengal and Maharashtra.

8.      Emergence of Middle Class: Educated middle class provided leadership in socio-political reforms, pushing for social change and empowerment.

9.      Role of Press: Newspapers and journals spread reform ideas, advocating social justice, education reform, women’s rights, and political empowerment.

·        Key Ideas: Purification of Hinduism, promotion of monotheism, opposition to polytheism, idol worship, caste system, and social evils like Sati.

·        Impact: Led to the abolition of Sati in 1829, promotion of women’s rights, modern education, and freedom of the press.

Satyashodhak Samaj (1873)

• Founder: Jyotirao Phule in Maharashtra
• Key Ideas: Social upliftment of lower castes and women, fight against caste discrimination and social injustice.
• Actions: Promoted education as a tool for empowerment, introduced Satyashodhak marriage to avoid Brahmin dominance and financial barriers.
• Impact: Led by Phule and Savitribai Phule, worked for women’s education, abolition of caste, and opposed socio-economic disparities; inspired writings like “Gulamgiri”

Aligarh Movement

·        Founder: Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, late 19th century

·        Key Ideas: Modernize Muslim community through English education and rational thinking. Promote Western knowledge while retaining Islamic identity.

Actions:

·       1875: Founded Muhammadan Anglo Oriental College in Aligarh (later Aligarh Muslim University).

·       1866: Established Mohammadan Educational Conference to promote liberal ideas and modern education among Muslims.

Impact:

·       Modernized Muslim education and encouraged participation in socio-political life.

·       Helped Muslims enter modern professions and improve their socio-economic status.

·       Key Ideas: Revival of Brahmo Samaj principles, focus on rationality, social reforms like widow remarriage and women’s education, opposition to the caste system.

·       Impact: Spread modern ideas among the Bengali intelligentsia through the Tattvabodhini Patrika; promoted rational and humanistic Hinduism.

Arya Samaj (1875)

·       Founder: Swami Dayanand Saraswati in Bombay

·       Key Ideas: Revival of Vedic traditions, monotheism, opposition to idol worship, caste discrimination, and social evils like child marriage.

·       Suddhi Movement: Focused on reconversion to Hinduism.

·       Impact: Established Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) Schools (1886), promoted nationalism with leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai; encouraged social reform and widow remarriage.

Ahmadiyya Movement

·       Founder: Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, 1889

·       Key Ideas: Liberal interpretation of Islam, rejection of jihad, focus on moral reform and peaceful propagation of Islam.

Actions:

·        Established schools to provide modern education integrated with Islamic values.

·        Advocated religion-state separation, human rights, and tolerance.

Impact:

·        Promoted Western-style education within the Muslim community.

·        The movement’s belief in Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as the Messiah led to significant theological differences with mainstream Islam.

·       Key Ideas: Rational worship, promotion of monotheism, social reform, advocating inter-caste marriages, widow remarriage, and women’s education.

·       Impact: Encouraged reforms in caste discrimination, improved women’s status, and raised marriage age.

Paramahansa Mandali (1849)

·       Founders: Dadoba Pandurang, Mehtaji Durgaram, and others in Maharashtra

·       Key Ideas: Monotheism, ethical behavior, opposition to caste restrictions, and irrational practices.

·       Actions: Promoted inter-caste dining, widow remarriage, and women’s education.

·       Impact: Spread through branches in Maharashtra (Poona, Satara), inspired further social reform and rational thinking.

Wahabi Movement (Walliullah Movement)

·       Founder: Syed Ahmed Barelvi, inspired by Shah Walliullah

·       Key Ideas: Islamic revivalism, opposition to Western influences, and unification of Islamic jurisprudence.

Actions:

·        Initially opposed the Sikhs in Punjab, shifted focus to resisting British colonial rule post-1849.

·        Emphasized strict adherence to Quran and Hadith, rejected superstitions.

Impact:

·        British suppression in the 1870s but left a lasting legacy of Islamic resistance and revivalism in India.

·       Key Ideas: Inspired nationalism and social reform, emphasized rational thinking, questioning authority, advocating for individual freedom, opposition to idol worship and caste discrimination.

·       Impact: Promoted women’s rights and education; influenced future generations of reformers; significant in Bengal’s intellectual awakening.

Ramakrishna Movement

·       Founder: Based on teachings of Ramakrishna Paramhansa

·       Key Ideas: Unity of all religions, spiritual salvation, and service to humanity as a form of worship.

·       Impact: Swami Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission (1897), focused on education, social welfare, and humanitarian work like orphanages, hospitals, and philanthropy; spread Vedanta philosophy.

The Theosophical Movement

·        Founded: 1875 by Madame H.P. Blavatsky (1831–1891) and Colonel M.S. Olcott in New York City; relocated to Adyar, Madras (Chennai), India in 1882.

Key Features:

·        Spiritual Connection: Belief in establishing a relationship b/n – soul & God through contemplation, prayer, and revelation.

·        Philosophical Influence: Embraced Hindu concepts – reincarnation and karma, drawing from Upanishads, Samkhya, Yoga, and Vedanta.

·        Universal Brotherhood: Aimed for the universal brotherhood of humanity, regardless of race, creed, sex, caste, or color.

·        Exploration of Nature: Investigated the unexplained laws of nature and latent human powers.

·        Social Reforms: Opposed child marriage, advocated for the abolition of caste discrimination, and worked for the upliftment of widows.

·        Cultural Impact: Allied with the Hindu renaissance and briefly with the Arya Samaj.

Annie Besant’s Role:

·        Became president in 1907 after Olcott’s death.

·        Arrived in India in 1893, founded Central Hindu College in Varanasi (1898), which evolved into Benaras Hindu University in 1916.

·        Promoted women’s education and integrated Hindu religious studies with Western scientific subjects.

·        Mahatma Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar were key figures in India’s social reform, each advocating for equality but with contrasting philosophies.

·        Gandhi focused on moral awakening and integration within the caste framework, while Ambedkar sought legal empowerment and the eradication of caste.

Conclusion

• Gandhi’s focus on moral transformation and caste integration contrasted with Ambedkar’s emphasis on legal rights and complete caste abolition.
• Both left a lasting impact on India’s struggle for social justice and continue to shape discussions on equality and reform in India today.

• Non-violence and Satyagraha: Promoted ahimsa (non-violence) and satyagraha (truth-force) – movements – Champaran & Kheda for moral reform.
• Spiritual and Moral Upliftment: Believed in self-discipline and spiritual growth as paths to personal and social transformation.
• Caste Integration: Sought to uplift marginalized groups by promoting the term Harijan and founding the Harijan Sevak Sangh.
• Village-Centric Economy: Advocated decentralized economics and local self-sufficiency to address social inequalities.

• Political and Legal Reforms: Focused on constitutional safeguards and political representation for Dalits and marginalized communities.
• Eradication of Caste: Strongly advocated for the abolition of the caste system, viewing it as the root cause of inequality.
• Rationality and Education: Emphasized education and rationality as tools for empowerment, founding the All-India Depressed Classes Association.
• Economic and Social Rights: Pushed for affirmative action (reservations) to ensure equal opportunities for marginalized groups in education, employment, and politics.

·        Vision: Aimed for – socialist, equitable India, grounded- social and economic justice.

Conclusion: Bose’s legacy continues to influence India’s narrative of freedom and its journey as a sovereign nation.

• Advocated for immediate and complete independence, energizing Indian youth and masses.
• Shifted focus to armed struggle, contrasting Congress ideology, and mobilized – more aggressive nationalist faction.

Leadership of the Indian National Army (INA):

• Established – INA to fight for India’s liberation through armed rebellion.
• Aligned with Axis powers during World War II – leverage geopolitical dynamics against British rule.

International Diplomacy:

• Sought support from countries opposed to British interests – Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union.
• Aimed to create a global coalition against British imperialism, transcending domestic politics.

·        Promoted social reforms, focusing – marginalized communities & gender equality.

·        Formed – “Rani of Jhansi Regiment,” highlighting – role of women in the independence struggle.

Empowerment through Labour and Unity:

·        Collaborated with leaders – Jawaharlal Nehru and Sarojini Naidu to support labor rights through organizations like AITUC.

·        Worked for Hindu-Muslim unity, integrating economic, social, and communal harmony into his vision.

Political Leadership:

• Served as president during – Congress sessions at Haripura and Tripuri, solidifying his leadership despite ideological differences that led to his departure from Congress.

I.       History and Culture of India, with special reference to Modern Period (1757 to 1947 A.D.)

Theme 2:     Early Phase of the Indian National Congress (1885-1905)

Theme 3:     Indian National Movement (1905–1918)

Theme 4:     The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement (1905–1918)

Theme 5:     Difference between Moderates and Extremists

Theme 6:     Revolutionary Movements in India

Theme 7:     Gandhi’s Return to India (1915-1918) and other events till 1947 (Independence Act 1947)

·        Inspired by the French Revolution and global ideas of self-determination.

2. Indian Renaissance:

·        Resurgence of Indian cultural and intellectual identity.

3. Offshoot of Modernization:

·        British modernization efforts significantly impacted India’s political landscape.

4. Reaction to British Imperialist Policies:

·        Strong responses to political, administrative, and economic unification under British rule.

·        Economic policies favored British interests, heightening economic nationalism.

·        Direct governance of provinces & indirect governance of princely states.

·        Enhanced cultural and economic bonds b/n regions through modern transport & communication.

Western Thought and Education:

·        Introduction – modern education systems opened avenues for Western ideas.

·        Influential thinkers included Milton, Shelley, Mill, Rousseau, Paine, Spencer, and Voltaire.

·        English became -medium of instruction (1835), unifying educated Indians across linguistic backgrounds.

·        Exposure – democratic systems influenced Indian political thought and aspirations for independence.

·        Press critiqued colonial policies and promoted unity.

·        Newspapers spread ideas of self-government, democracy, and civil rights.

·        Vernacular Press Act (Gagging Act) restricted press freedom, later repealed under Lord Ripon.

Rise of Middle-Class Intelligentsia

·        Emergence of an urban middle class due to British administrative and economic innovations.

·        This educated class became pivotal in the Indian National Congress.

·        Shared knowledge and values drove political transformation in India.

·        Aim: Secure greater representation – educated Indians in govt and facilitate dialogue – British Raj.

·        First Congress meeting organized – Bombay – approval from Viceroy Lord Dufferin.

·        Umesh Chandra Banerjee: First president of the Congress; included delegates – every province.

·        1890: Kadambini Ganguly addressed the Congress, symbolizing – struggle for women’s rights.

·        Indian National Conference sessions in 1883 and 1885 by Surendranath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose laid groundwork for political unity.

·        1884: Hume founded the Indian National Union, -precursor to the INC.

Safety Valve Theory

·        Concept: Hume established the Congress as a ‘safety valve’ to relieve Indian discontent, supported by leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai.

·        Critics like R.P. Dutt viewed it as a conspiracy to suppress uprisings.

·        Modern historians argue the Congress represented political consciousness and a desire for a national platform for demands.

·        Early leaders used Hume as a catalyst to unite nationalistic forces against colonial opposition.Bottom of Form

·        First Session: Dec 1885 in Bombay, with 72 delegates.

·        Purpose: Served – platform for political reform; aimed -address issues affecting all Indians, regardless of caste, religion, or language.

·        Initial Audience: Primarily upper and middle-class, Western-educated Indians.

Aims and Objectives

·        Establish – democratic, nationalist movement.

·        Politicize & educate the populace.

·        Serve – headquarters for nationalist movement.

·        Foster relationships among nationalist workers from various regions.

·        Promote anti-colonial nationalism.

·        Formulate and present popular demands to the government.

·        Cultivate a sense of national unity across religions, castes, and provinces.

·        Nurture the concept of Indian nationhood.

• Dadabhai Naoroji: “Grand Old Man of India.”
• Womesh Chandra Bannerjee: First president of the INC.
• G. Subramanya Aiyer: Founded The Hindu newspaper.
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale: Gandhi’s political mentor.
• Surendranath Banerjee: Known as “Rashtraguru.”

Moderate Strategies

• Advocated for patience and conciliation over confrontation.
• Organized annual sessions, processions, and discussions to raise political awareness.
• Drafted and submitted petitions and memorandums to the government.
• Sent deputations of Indian leaders to England to influence British policies.

Impact of Moderates

• Created national awareness among Indians.
• Promoted democratic ideas, civil liberties, and secularism.
• Formulated the “drain theory” to explain British exploitation.
• Initiated social reforms like the establishment of a Public Service Commission.
• Worked toward democratic self-government.

·        Emphasis on Patience: Prioritized peaceful means and reconciliation.

·        Constitutional Methods: Relied on constitutional avenues to achieve objectives.

·        Political Education: Focused on educating the populace and raising political consciousness.

·        Engagement with England: Organized lectures and published “India”, a weekly journal to influence British public opinion.

·        Use of Newspapers: Employed various periodicals to critique government policies.

·        Petitions and Inquiries: Urged government inquiries to address public issues.

·        Meetings and Discussions: Held gatherings – social, economic, and cultural issues in cities like Mumbai, Allahabad, Pune, and Calcutta.

• Disillusionment among educated Indians regarding unaddressed demands.
• Belief in the necessity of an Indian government for progress.
• Economic hardships in the 1890s, including famines and plague outbreaks, highlighted colonial exploitation.
• Riots in the Deccan due to economic grievances.
• Repressive measures:
  • Indian Councils Act (1892), deportation of the Natu brothers (1897), IPC Section 124A (1898), and restrictions on press freedom.

Growth of Confidence and Self-Respect:

• Increased faith in self-effort among the masses.
• Leaders like Tilak, Aurobindo, and Bipin Chandra Pal encouraged reliance on Indian capabilities.

Growth of Education:

• Spread of education raised awareness but also led to unemployment.
• Economic underdevelopment under colonial rule fueled radical discontent.

International Influences:

• Japan’s progress post-1868 inspired Indian aspirations.
• Events like Ethiopia’s victory (1896), Boer Wars (1899–1902), and Japan’s victory over Russia (1905) challenged European superiority.
• Global nationalist movements provided additional inspiration.

Reaction to Increasing Westernization:

• New leaders viewed excessive westernization as a threat to Indian identity.
• Intellectuals like Vivekananda, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, and Dayananda Saraswati promoted positive depictions of India’s past.

Dissatisfaction with Moderates:

• Younger Congress members criticized the moderate approach and “Three P’s” (prayer, petition, protest) as ineffective.

Reactionary Policies of Curzon:

• Lord Curzon’s rule and policies, including the partition of Bengal, reinforced perceptions of British oppression.

·       Raj Narain Bose, Ashwini Kumar Dutta, Aurobindo Ghosh, Bipin Chandra Pal, Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai.

Fundamental Principles:

·       Opposition to foreign domination; emphasis on Swaraj (self-rule) as the ultimate goal.

·       Advocacy for direct political engagement and personal sacrifice for the cause.

Key Figures  

Bal Gangadhar Tilak:

·       Known as Lokamanya; influential in anti-British movement.

·       Used publications like “The Mahratta” and “The Kesari” to promote nationalism.

·       Established the Home Rule League (1916), famously stated, “Swaraj is my birthright.”

Lala Lajpat Rai:

·       Known as the ‘Lion of Punjab’; pivotal in the Swadeshi Movement.

·       Co-founded the Indian Home Rule League in the US (1916).

Bipin Chandra Pal:

·       Transitioned from moderate to extremist; instrumental in building grassroots support for the Swadeshi Movement.

Aurobindo Ghosh:

·       Active in the Swadeshi Movement; faced imprisonment for nationalist activities.

·       Later shifted focus to spirituality in Pondicherry.Bottom of Form

·        Aimed to create two provinces: Western Bengal (Calcutta as capital) and Eastern Bengal and Assam (Dacca as capital).

·        Partition seen as an attempt to weaken Bengal, a hub of Indian nationalism, dividing it based on language and religion.

·        Lord Curzon supported partition to appease Muslims and counterbalance the Indian National Congress.

·       Key leaders like Surendranath Banerjea, Krishna Kumar Mitra, & Prithwishchandra Ray led – powerful press campaign against partition.

Shift to Extremist Tactics

·        The movement officially began on August 7, 1905, in Calcutta, marking a transition from moderate to more militant strategies.

·        Boycott Resolution passed, urging people to reject foreign goods, especially Manchester cloth and Liverpool salt.

·        Government responded with repressive measures:

o   Corporal punishment for students.

o   Banning public singing of Vande Mataram.

o   Arresting and deporting Swadeshi leaders.

o   Suppression of press and public gatherings.

·        Boycott and Burning: Foreign cloth and goods were boycotted and publicly burned.

·        Day of Mourning: October 16, 1905, was declared a day of mourning, with hartal (strike) in Calcutta.

·        Unity Symbol: People fasted, walked barefoot, and sang “Bande Mataram”. Rabindranath Tagore composed “Amar Sonar Bangla” during the protests. Rakshabandhan was observed as a symbol of unity between Hindus and Muslims.

·        Mass Meetings: Gatherings drew 50,000 to 75,000 people, raising Rs. 50,000 for the movement in hours.

·       Leaders like Aurobindo Ghosh, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Bipin Chandra Pal promoted Swaraj (self-rule) as the goal.

Key Elements of Extremist Programme:

·       Passive Resistance and Boycott: Support for locally made goods (Swadeshi) and boycott of foreign products.

·       Passive Resistance: Avoid engagement with government institutions, schools, colleges, and services.

·       Mass Mobilization: Intensify the movement for India’s complete liberation from British rule.

·       Self-Sacrifice: Focus on acts of sacrifice and dedication for freedom, a significant departure from the moderate methods of the Indian National Congress.

Important Leaders in Swadeshi Movement:

• Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Known as ‘Lokamanya’, led the Home Rule League in 1916 and declared, “Swaraj is my birthright.”
• Lala Lajpat Rai: The ‘Lion of Punjab’, co-founded the Indian Home Rule League in 1916 in the US, organizing international protests.
• Bipin Chandra Pal: Initially moderate, later embraced extremism and mobilized grassroots support for the Swadeshi Movement.
• Aurobindo Ghosh: Participated in the movement, later retreated to Pondicherry to focus on spiritual pursuits.

·        Nawab Salimullah of Dacca proposed the creation of an organization to represent Muslim interests.

·        The proposal was accepted, leading to the establishment of the All-India Muslim League on December 30, 1906.

·        The League conducted annual sessions similar to the Indian National Congress, presenting demands to the British government.

Surat Split (1907)

·        Lord Minto became the new Viceroy in 1906, heightening tensions between Extremists and Moderates in the Congress.

·        The split was temporarily avoided at the Calcutta session (1906) by accepting Moderate demands and electing Dadabhai Naoroji as president.

·        Extremists passed four key resolutions: Swadeshi, Boycott, National Education, and Self-Government.

·        The Surat session (1907) shifted from Poona (Extremist stronghold) to Surat.

·        Extremists proposed Lala Lajpat Rai as president, opposing Moderate candidate Rash Behari Ghosh.

·        The session resulted in chaos and a formal split of the Indian National Congress into Extremists and Moderates.

·        The movement moved from mass-based action to elite responses against British rule.

·        Newspapers (Incitement to Offence) Act, 1908: Empowered magistrates to confiscate press property publishing anti-British material.

·        Indian Press Act, 1910: Required publishers to deposit security; seized if they printed objectionable content.

·        Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act: Allowed summary trials and banned associations deemed harmful to public peace, often suppressing political dissent.

·        Despite these repressive measures, revolutionary activities continued, with the center of nationalist actions shifting to Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.

·       Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, Gujarat.

·       Gandhi belonged to a privileged background; his father was a diwan (minister) in Kathiawar.

Education and Legal Career:

·       Studied law in England.

·       In 1893, traveled to South Africa to handle a legal case for Dada Abdullah.

Activism in South Africa (1893-1914):

·       Discrimination against Indians motivated Gandhi to stay and organize Indian laborers.

Indian Community Composition in South Africa:

·       Indentured laborers (mainly South Indians) arrived after 1890 for sugar plantations.

·       Merchants (mostly Memon Muslims) followed laborers.

·       Ex-indentured laborers settled with families after their contracts.

·       These immigrants faced discrimination, denied voting rights, forced into unsanitary conditions, and subjected to curfews.

Impact on Gandhi’s Activism:

·       His experiences of white racism and humiliation of Indian laborers shaped his future commitment to civil rights and social justice in India.

·        Undertook – year-long tour to assess people’s conditions.

Non-Political Stance

·        Decided – remain non-political for – year.

·        Did not support – Home Rule Movement due to World War I.

·        Focused – non-violent satyagraha – main method – achieving independence.

Gandhi’s Views on Society

1.      Western Civilization: Criticized materialism and industrialization.

2.      Education System: Emphasized practical skills and moral development.

3.      Trusteeship: Wealthy should act as trustees of societal wealth.

4.      Village Development: Advocated village self-sufficiency and sustainable agriculture.

5.      Marriage and Varna: Supported inter-caste marriages and vocational roles.

6.      Untouchability: Campaigned to eradicate untouchability and uplift Dalits.

• Led by Gandhi against – Tinkathia System in Champaran, Bihar.
• Outcome: System abolished, first success in civil disobedience.

2. Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) – First Hunger Strike

• Workers demanded wage increases during inflation.
• Gandhi’s hunger strike led to 35% wage increase.

3. Kheda Satyagraha (1918) – First Non-Cooperation

• Farmers in Kheda refused to pay taxes due to drought.
• Outcome: Taxes suspended; property returned.

Gains from Champaran, Ahmedabad, and Kheda

·        Proved effectiveness of satyagraha.

·        Gained respect and trust from the masses.

·        Showed that complete independence was the key to ending exploitation.

·        Dyarchy in provinces: Divided subjects “Reserved” & “Transferred”

·        Bicameral legislature -national level: Council of States and Legislative Assembly.

·        Expanded Provincial Legislative Councils: 70% elected members.

·        Introduced communal electorates and women’s right to vote.

·        Allowed imprisonment without trial, secret trials, and arrests without warrants.

·        Suspended habeas corpus, leading to mass protests.

·        Satyagraha Sabha formed by Gandhi, calling for hartal in protest.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)

·        April 13, 1919: British troops, led by General Dyer, fired on a peaceful gathering in Amritsar, killing hundreds.

·        Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood; Gandhi gave up the title of Kaiser-i-Hind.

·        Triggered nationwide protests against the British.

·        Advocated for Dominion status and constitutional reforms in India.

Irwin’s Declaration (1929)

·        Asserted Dominion status as a natural goal for India, though lacked specifics.

·        Promised a Round Table Conference to discuss India’s constitutional progress.

Delhi Manifesto (1929)

·        National leaders issued conditions for attending the Round Table Conference:

o   Focus on Dominion status.

o   Congress majority representation.

o   General amnesty for political prisoners.

·        January 26, 1930: First Independence Day celebrated.

·        Called for civil disobedience and tax non-payment.

Dandi March (1930)

·        March 12, 1930: Gandhi’s Salt March began with 78 followers to break the salt law.

·        Sparked the Civil Disobedience Movement, encouraging mass non-cooperation with British laws.

·        Focused on boycott of foreign goods, tax refusal, and picketing of government institutions.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931)

·        Signed in Delhi b/n Mahatma Gandhi and Viceroy Lord Irwin.

·        Key agreements:

1.      Release of all political prisoners not involved – violence.

2.      Right to make salt in coastal areas.

3.      Withdrawal of emergency ordinances and fines.

·        Gandhi agreed – suspend Civil Disobedience Movement & attend next Round Table Conference.

·        Rejected demands: Enquiry into police excesses and commutation of Bhagat Singh’s death sentence.

• Gandhi attended but returned disappointed as no agreement was reached on complete independence or communal issues.
• Led to the resumption of Civil Disobedience Movement in January 1932.

Civil Disobedience Resumed (December 29, 1931)

• Congress Working Committee decided to restart the Civil Disobedience Movement after the failure of the second Round Table Conference.

• Announced by British PM Ramsay MacDonald.
• Introduced separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Depressed Classes.
• Seats were reserved for women, laborers, landlords, and Marathas.
• Congress opposed separate electorates but did not reject the award outright.

Gandhi’s Response to Communal Award

• Gandhi viewed the award as a threat to Indian unity and Hindu society.
• He saw separate electorates for Depressed Classes as divisive and harmful.
• Gandhi undertook a fast unto death in Yerwada Jail in September 1932 to protest against the award.

Poona Pact (1932)

• Compromise between B.R. Ambedkar and Madan Mohan Malviya.
• Agreed on joint electorates with reserved seats for the Depressed Classes.
• Resolved the issue of separate electorates for Depressed Classes.

·        Outcome: The conference led to the formulation of the Government of India Act, 1935.

Harijan Sevak Sangh

·        Founded: By Gandhi on September 30, 1932, after the Poona Pact.

·        Leadership: G.D. Birla as President, Amritlal Takkar as Secretary.

·        Mission: Worked for the eradication of untouchability, promoting access to public spaces like temples and schools for the depressed classes.

·        Achievements: Successful campaigns like the Temple Entry Movement in Tamil Nadu led by A. Vaidyanatha Iyer in 1939.

·        Gandhi Arrested: January 4, 1932; mass protests erupted nationwide.

·        Communal Award: Ramsay MacDonald’s Communal Award (1932) introduced separate electorates for Dalits, causing divisions.

·        Shift to Individual Satyagraha: Initiated by Gandhi in August 1933 to maintain momentum.

·        End of Movement: Officially ended in April 1934.

Impacts of Civil Disobedience Movement

1.      Political Influence: Bolstered Congress’s political power; led to victories in the 1937 elections.

2.      Rise of Leaders: Figures like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose gained prominence.

3.      Role of Women: Women played a crucial role, with leaders like Sarojini Naidu and Mithuben Petit.

Objectives: Overthrow British rule through armed rebellion; establish a Federal Republic of the United States of India.

Key Activities:

·        Kakori Conspiracy (1925): HRA members robbed a train to target British treasury; leaders like Ramprasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan, Roshan Singh, and Rajendra Lahiri were executed.

·        Lahore Conspiracy (1928): Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev assassinated James A. Scott in retaliation for Lala Lajpat Rai’s death.

·        Assembly Bombing (1929): Bhagat Singh and BK Dutt bombed the Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi to protest British policies.

·        Execution: Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev were executed on March 23, 1931.

Government of India Act, 1935

Key Features:

·        All India Federation: Proposed with provinces and princely states as units, but it never materialized due to princely states’ non-participation.

·        Provincial Autonomy: Replaced diarchy in provinces, granting more autonomy.

·        Bicameralism: Introduced in six out of eleven provinces and at the central level.

·        Diarchy at Centre: Federal subjects were divided into reserved (defense, external affairs) and transferred subjects.

·        Communal Representation: Extended communal electorates for Muslims, scheduled castes, women, and laborers.

·        Key Points:

·       Dominion Status as ultimate goal.

·       Constituent Assembly after World War II.

·       Expansion of Viceroy’s Council with Indian representation.

Cripps Mission (1942)

·       Led by: Sir Stafford Cripps, arrived in India on March 23, 1942.

·       Purpose: To secure India’s support in WWII.

·       Proposals:

o   Dominion status for India post-war.

o   Constituent Assembly to frame a new constitution.

o   Right of provinces to form separate unions.

·        Reactions:

o   Congress and Muslim League rejected the proposals.

o   Gandhi called it a “post-dated cheque.”

·        Key Features:

o   Do or Die call by Gandhi.

o   Mass Uprising: Attacks on British infrastructure, mass strikes, and underground activities.

o   Leaders: Jayaprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha Mehta.

Poona Pact (1932)

• Gandhi’s Fast: Protested against separate electorates for untouchables.
• Outcome: Compromise reached with Ambedkar; separate electorates replaced by reserved seats.

C.R. Rajagopalachari Formula (1945)

• Proposed by: C.R. Rajagopalachari to resolve Hindu-Muslim differences over partition.
• Proposal: Separate electorate for Muslims and plebiscite in Muslim-majority areas to decide on partition.

1.      Muslim League to support Congress for Indian independence.

2.      League to join an interim government with Congress.

3.      Plebiscite in North-West and North-East Muslim-majority areas post-WWII to decide on partition.

4.      Post-partition negotiations for defense, trade, and communication.

5.      Effective only after full transfer of power by Britain.

Responses:

o   Gandhi supported; acknowledged the two-nation theory.

o   Jinnah: Demanded plebiscite be limited to Muslim population; opposed shared government.

o   Hindu leaders like Vir Savarkar criticized the plan.

C.R. Rajagopalachari Formula (1945)

Key Proposals:

1.      Partition plebiscite in Muslim-majority areas.

2.      Both Congress and Muslim League work towards Indian independence.

Criticized by Jinnah for not fully addressing the two-nation theory.

·        Objective: Coalition government between Congress and Muslim League to ease tensions before independence.

Wavell Plan (1945)

Key Aspects:

1.      All Indian executive council, except Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief.

2.      Equal Hindu-Muslim representation.

3.      Interim council not accountable to Central Assembly.

4.      Separate representation for Scheduled Castes.

5.      Veto power for the Governor-General.

Outcome: Shimla Conference (1945) failed due to lack of consensus.

·        Proposals:

1.      Creation of a Constituent Assembly to draft the constitution.

2.      Provincial elections to select members for the Assembly.

3.      No partition considered at this stage.

Direct Action Day (1946)

·        Called by: Muhammad Ali Jinnah on August 16, 1946.

·        Purpose: Demand for the creation of Pakistan.

·        Outcome: Led to widespread communal riots, starting with Calcutta Killings.

Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Mutiny (1946)

·        Cause: Discontent among Indian sailors over racial discrimination.

·        Leadership: Led by non-commissioned officers in Bombay.

·        Significance: Major event in the independence movement, reflecting growing tensions.

Indian Independence Act (1947)

·        Passed: August 15, 1947.

·        Key Features:

1.      Creation of two dominions, India and Pakistan.

2.      Princely states given the option to join either India or Pakistan.

3.      Abolition of the Secretary of State for India.

4.      Establishment of independent legislatures for both dominions.

·        Aftermath: Triggered mass migration and violence during partition.

·       His tenure focused – improving administration but also instilled bitterness towards British rule.

Conclusion:   Lord Curzon’s administrative and economic reforms -aimed – improving governance, but –authoritarian measures, particularly – Partition of Bengal, led to widespread nationalistic resistance & deep-seated hatred towards British rule. Curzon’s legacy is a reminder of British imperialism’s exploitative nature in India.

·        Curzon expanded railway infrastructure and prioritized profitability.

·        1901 Railway Commission: Recommendations led to the formation of a Railway Board and the railway’s management shifted from the Public Works Department to a commercial department.

Calcutta Corporation Act (1899):

·        Reduced Indian representation in the Calcutta Corporation, increasing British control.

·        Local self-government suffered; protest by 28 members who resigned in opposition.

Economic Reforms:

·        Standardized currency: 1 pound = 15 rupees.

·        Reduced salt tax to make it affordable.

·        Encouraged financial decentralization.

·        Department of Commerce and Industry was established to handle industrial interests.

• Co-operative Credit Societies Act (1904): Encouraged peasants to avoid moneylenders through cooperatives.
• Punjab Land Alienation Act (1900): Prevented land transfers from peasants to moneylenders.

Police Reforms:

• Police Commission (1902) led by Sir Andrew Frazer, aimed at improving police efficiency.
• Indians promoted to Inspector ranks but no higher.

Education Reforms:

• Universities Commission (1902): Led to reforms in university education, recommending stricter control and improving higher education.
• Indian Universities Act (1904): Tightened British control over universities and promoted higher education standards.

Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904):

• Established an Archaeological Department to preserve India’s historical monuments.
• Encouraged the creation of provincial museums to safeguard heritage.

Partition of Bengal (1905):

• The most controversial reform, dividing Bengal based on religious lines (Hindus in the west, Muslims in the east).
• Sparked mass protests, leading to the Swadeshi Movement and fueled nationalism.