Indian Geography SPMB

·        India’s Diverse Landforms: Rugged northern mountains, stable southern plateaus, vast northern plains.

·        Macro Divisions: India is divided into six major physiographic regions:

1. Northern and North-Eastern Mountains
2. Northern Plains
3. Peninsular Plateau
4. Indian Desert
5. Coastal Plains
6. Islands

Significance of the Himalayas:

·        Climatic Influence: Act as a barrier, protecting India from cold Central Asian winds and trapping monsoon rains.

·        Drainage: Serve as the source of major rivers such as the Ganga, Yamuna, Brahmaputra.

·        Cultural Impact: Diverse cultural practices, languages, and traditions influenced by the geography.

Conclusion:

·       India’s physiography is characterized by an intricate combination of natural landforms, each contributing to the nation’s climate, culture, and economy.

Orientation:

Varies from northwest-southeast in NW India, east-west in Darjeeling and Sikkim, southwest-northwest in Arunachal Pradesh, and north-south in the NE hills.

Subdivisions of the Himalayas:

1.      Kashmir/Northwestern Himalayas:

·       Famous Peaks: Nanga Parbat.

·       Valleys: Kashmir Valley, Dal Lake.

·       Mountain Ranges: Karakoram, Zaskar, Ladakh, Pir Panjal.

2.      Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas:

·       Peaks: Nanda Devi.

·       Rivers: Yamuna, Beas.

·       Hill Stations: Shimla, Manali.

3.      Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas:

·       Highest Peak: Kanchenjunga.

·       Key Rivers: Tista River.

·       Tea Plantations: Known for its world-famous tea industry.

4.      Arunachal Himalayas:

·       Known for dense forests and biodiversity.

·       Key peaks and rivers include Namdapha National Park, and the Mishmi Hills.

5.      Eastern Hills:

·       Located in Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, and Meghalaya.

·       Khasi, Jaintia, Naga Hills: Known for rich biodiversity and tribal cultures.

Formation: Alluvial deposits by the Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra rivers.

·        Length: Approx. 3,200 km, width between 150-300 km.

·        Elevation: 50-150 meters above mean sea level.

Zones:

·        Bhabar: Narrow belt, parallel to the Shivalik foothills; porous due to rocks and boulders.

·        Tarai: Marshy zone, south of Bhabar, supports diverse vegetation.

o   Alluvial Plains:

§  Khadar: Newer alluvial deposits, fertile soil.

§  Bhangar: Older alluvium, less fertile.

·        Physiographic Features: Sandbars, ox-bow lakes, meanders, braided channels.

·        Key Rivers: Ganga, Yamuna, Brahmaputra—dynamic rivers contributing to plains’ fertility.

4.The Indian Desert (Thar Desert)

·        Location: NW of Aravalli Hills.

·        Climate: Arid, with less than 150mm rainfall annually.

·        Vegetation: Sparse due to low precipitation.

·        Physiographic Features:

o   Dunes: Longitudinal dunes, barchans (crescent-shaped).

o   Mushroom Rocks: Wind-eroded rock formations.

o   Oases: Found in southern desert areas.

·        Historical Significance: Was a sea during the Mesozoic era; fossilized wood and marine deposits are evidence.

·        Elevation: 150-900 meters.

Boundaries:

o   NW: Delhi Ridge.

o   East: Rajmahal Hills.

o   West: Gir Range.

o   South: Cardamom Hills.

o   NE: Shillong and Karbi Anglong Plateaus.

Subdivisions:

2.      Deccan Plateau:

Boundaries:

§  West: Western Ghats.

§  East: Eastern Ghats.

§  North: Satpura Range.

Western Ghats:

§  Peaks: Anaimudi (2,695m), Dodabetta (2,637m).

§  Origin of major rivers.

Eastern Ghats: Discontinuous hills, eroded by rivers like Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri.

§  Nilgiri Hills: Convergence of Western and Eastern Ghats.

3.      Central Highlands:

Boundaries:

§  West: Aravalli Range.

§  South: Satpura Range.

§  East: Rajmahal Hills.

Features: Highly denuded mountains, metamorphic rocks.

Rivers: Yamuna, Chambal.

4.      Northeastern Plateau:

Meghalaya Plateau:

§  Subdivisions: Garo, Khasi, Jaintia Hills.

§  Rich in coal, limestone, uranium.

Karbi-Anglong Plateau: In Assam, similar geological features to Meghalaya Plateau.

1. The Western Coastal Plains

Nature: Submerged coastal plain.

Width: Generally narrow.

Extent: Gujarat (north) to Kerala (south).

Divisions:

1. Kachchh and Kathiawar: Arid, salt flats.
2. Konkan Coast (Maharashtra): Scenic, major ports.
3. Goan Coast (Goa): Tourism, beaches.
4. Malabar Coast (Karnataka & Kerala): Backwaters, lush landscape.

• Key Features:
  • Ports: Kandla, Mumbai, Marmagao, Mangalore, Cochin.
  • Kayals: Backwaters like Punnamada Kayal in Kerala.
  • Nehru Trophy Vallamkali: Annual boat race in Kerala.

2. The Eastern Coastal Plains

• Nature: Emergent coastal plain.
• Width: Broader than western coast.
• Extent: West Bengal (north) to Tamil Nadu (south).
• Key Features:
  • Deltas: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri.
  • Ports: Kolkata, Chennai.
  • Hydrology: Well-developed deltas, broad continental shelf extending up to 500 km.

Geographical Groups: Bay of Bengal & Arabian Sea.

A. Islands of the Bay of Bengal

·        Location: 6°N to 14°N, 92°E to 94°E.

·        Principal Groups:

o   Andaman Islands (north).

o   Nicobar Islands (south).

o   Ten Degree Channel separates Andaman and Nicobar.

·        Key Features:

o   Submarine Mountains: Elevated portion of underwater mountains.

o   Volcanic Activity: Barren Island is India’s only active volcano.

o   Coral Deposits: Pristine beaches, coral reefs.

o   Climate: Equatorial with convectional rainfall.

·        Notable Islands:

o   Andaman: North Sentinel Island, Havelock Island.

o   Nicobar: Car Nicobar, Great Nicobar Island (Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve).

·        Important Archipelagos: Ritchie’s Archipelago, Labyrinth Islands.

B. Islands of the Arabian Sea

·        Location: 8°N to 12°N, 71°E to 74°E.

·        Principal Groups:

o   Lakshadweep.

o   Minicoy: Largest island in Lakshadweep.

·        Key Features:

o   Coral Deposits: Predominantly coral formations.

o   Storm Beaches: Pebbles, cobbles on eastern shores.

·        Notable Islands:

o   Kavaratti: Administrative capital.

o   Agatti: Famous for lagoons, beaches.

o   Bangaram: Known for turquoise waters.

Drainage System: Network of water channels in an area.

Drainage Basin: Area drained by a single river and its tributaries.

Water Divide: Elevated land separating two drainage basins (e.g., world’s largest basin: Amazon, India’s largest: Ganga).

Radial: Rivers originate from -central point (e.g., Amarkantak).

Trellis: Parallel tributaries meet main river at right angles.

Centripetal: Rivers drain into a central depression (e.g., Rann of Kachchh).

Bay of Bengal Drainage: ~77% of India’s drainage (e.g., Ganga, Brahmaputra).

Water Divide: Delhi Ridge, Aravallis, and Sahyadris.

Middle & Lower Course Features: Meanders, oxbow lakes, frequent course changes (e.g., Kosi – “Sorrow of Bihar”).

1. Indus River System

Area: 11,65,000 sq. km (India: 3,21,289 sq. km).

Length: Total – 2,880 km (India – 1,114 km).

Other Names: Sindhu; called Singi Khamban in Tibet.

Origin: Glacier near Bokhar Chu, Kailash Range.

Major Tributaries: Shyok, Gilgit, Zaskar, Hunza, Nubra, Kabul.

Confluence: Panjnad (Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum); flows to Arabian Sea.

Right and Left bank tributaries of the Indus River

1. Right bank tributaries – Nubra river (main tributary of Shyok river), Shyok river, Gilgit river, Hunza river, Kabul river, Khurram river, Gomal river, Viboa river, Tochi river and Sangar river.
2. Left bank tributaries – Zanskar river, Suru river, Kishanganga (Neelam) river, Jhelum river, Chenab river, Ravi river, Beas river, Satluj river, Panjnad river.

Indus Water Treaty (IWT)

• Signed: 19th September 1960, between India and Pakistan.
• Purpose: Regulates the sharing of waters of the Indus River and its tributaries between the two nations.
• Division:
  1. Eastern Rivers (Satluj, Beas, Ravi) allocated to India.
  2. Western Rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab) allocated to Pakistan.
  3. Water Rights: India receives 20% of the water, while Pakistan receives 80%

·        Transboundary: Flows through India and Bangladesh.

·        Length: Approximately 2,525 km.

·        Basin Coverage: Covers about 8.6 lakh sq.km in India.

·        States: Flows through Uttarakhand (110 km), Uttar Pradesh (1,450 km), Bihar (445 km), and West Bengal (520 km).

·        Confluence: At Devprayag, Bhagirathi meets Alaknanda, and the combined river is called Ganga.

·        Alaknanda’s Origin: Santopanth Glacier above Badrinath.

2.      Nandaprayag: Confluence of Nandakini and Alaknanda.

3.      Karnaprayag: Confluence of Pindar and Alaknanda.

4.      Rudraprayag: Confluence of Mandakini (Kali Ganga) and Alaknanda.

5.      Devprayag: Confluence of Bhagirathi and Alaknanda.

·        Plains Entry: The Ganga emerges from the mountains at Haridwar.

·        Flow Direction: Initially flows southward, then southeast towards Mirzapur, and later eastward in the Bihar plains.

·        Bangladesh: The main Ganga branch becomes Padma, meets Jamuna (distributary of Brahmaputra), and later Meghna before entering the Bay of Bengal.

·        Sundarban Delta: Formed by Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers, the world’s largest and fastest-growing delta, home to the Royal Bengal Tiger.

·        Source: Yamunotri Glacier, Bandarpunch range (Uttarakhand).

·        Confluence: Joins Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad).

·        Tributaries: Tons, Chambal (famous for Chambal ravines), Sindh, Betwa, Ken (all from Aravallis, Vindhyan Range, and Malwa Plateau).

·        Confluence: Joins Ganga at Sirsa (Uttar Pradesh).

·        Source: Near Amarkantak Hill, Madhya Pradesh.

·        Confluence: Joins Ganga near Patna (Bihar).

·        Confluence: Joins Ganga at Fatwah (Patna).

·        Course: Flows through Jim Corbett National Park.

·        Confluence: Joins Ganga near Kannauj (Uttar Pradesh).

·        Source: Gomat Taal (Fulhaar Jheel), Pilibhit district (Uttar Pradesh).

·        Confluence: Meets Ganga at Kaithi, Ghazipur (Uttar Pradesh).

·        Markandey Mahadev Temple located at confluence.

·        Source: Glaciers of Mapchachungo, near Mansarovar Lake (Tibet).

·        Confluence: Joins Ganga at Chhapra (Bihar).

·        Second-longest tributary after Yamuna.

·        Also known as Kali Gandaki in Nepal.

·        Confluence: Merges with Ganga at Patna (Bihar).

·        Source: Northern slopes of Mt. Everest (Tibet).

·        Confluence: Joins Ganga near Kursela, Katihar district (Bihar).

·        Flows through Bihar, West Bengal, and Bangladesh.

·        Confluence: Joins Ganga at Godagari Ghat (Bangladesh).

·        Easternmost tributary of Ganga.

·       Origin: Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near Mansarovar Lake.

·       Tibet Region: Known as the Tsangpo in Tibet, which means “the purifier”, flows eastward for 1,200 km in a dry, flat region of southern Tibet.

·       Right-bank tributary in Tibet: Rango Tsangpo.

·       Central Himalayas: Emerges as a dynamic river after cutting through a deep gorge near Namcha Barwa (7,755 m).

·       India Entry: Enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh and is called Siang or Dihang.

• Dihang + Dibang + Lohit = Brahmaputra (Assam).

Riverine Islands:

• Braided channel throughout its length in Assam.
• Majuli: World’s largest river island (Assam).

Bangladesh Entry:

• Enters Bangladesh near Dhubri.
• Tista/Teesta River (from Sikkim) joins Brahmaputra on its right bank, after which it is called Jamuna.

• Western branch: Jamuna continues to merge with Padma (Ganga).
• Eastern branch: Known as Lower Brahmaputra, joins the Meghna near Dhaka.
• Padma and Meghna converge near Chandpur, flowing out as Meghna into the Bay of Bengal.

Tributaries of the Brahmaputra

• Left-bank tributaries:
  • Burhi-Dihing
  • Dhansiri
• Right-bank tributaries:
  • Subansiri (Gold River)
  • Kameng
  • Manas
  • Sankosh

·       Course: Flows through a rift valley between the Vindhyan (north) and Satpura (south) ranges.

Notable Features:

• Marble Rocks near Jabalpur.
• Dhuandhar Falls at Jabalpur.

Flow Through States: Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.

·       Outflow: Arabian Sea near Gulf of Khambhat, forming a broad estuary (27 km).

·       Length: ~1,312 km.

·       Sardar Sarovar Project: Built on the Narmada.

·       Kanha National Park: Located in the upper reaches, featured in Rudyard Kipling’s “The Jungle Book”.

·       Course: Flows parallel to the Narmada, through a rift valley.

·       Flow Through States: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.

·       Outflow: Arabian Sea near the Gulf of Khambhat.

·       Length: ~724 km.

·       Ukai Dam: Built on this river.

Mahi

·        Origin: Vindhyan Range, Madhya Pradesh.

·        Course: Flows through Rajasthan (Vagad) and Gujarat into the Gulf of Khambhat.

·        Key Dams: Mahi Bajaj Sagar Dam, Kandana Dam

·        Course: Flows through Rajasthan and Gujarat into the Gulf of Khambhat.

Luni

·        Origin: Pushkar Valley, Aravalli Range near Ajmer.

·        Initial Name: Sagarmati, becomes Luni after meeting Sarasvati (from Pushkar Lake).

·        Course: Flows through the Thar Desert, turns brackish after Balotra, loses itself in the Rann of Kutch.

·        Other Names: Lavanavari or Lavanavati in Sanskrit, meaning “Salt Water.”

·       Bhadra: Originates in Aniali Village, Rajkot District (Gujarat).

·       Dhadhar: Originates near Ghantar Village, Panchmahal District (Gujarat).

·       Vaitarna: Originates from Trimbak Hills, Nasik District (Maharashtra).

·       Kalinadi: Originates in Belgaum District, flows into Karwar Bay.

·       Bedti: Originates in Hubli-Dharwar (Karnataka).

·       Sharavati: Originates in Shimoga District (Karnataka).

·       Mandovi and Juari: Major rivers of Goa.

·       Bharathapuzha: Originates near Anamalai Hills, also known as Ponnani.

·       Periyar: Originates from Sivagiri Hills, Western Ghats (Kerala).

·       Pamba: Flows in Kerala, drains into Vembanad Lake.

·        Length: 851 km.

·        Drainage Basin: Shared by Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha.

·        Flow: Initially flows northward, then eastward; joined by Jonk and Hasdeo rivers.

·        Dams: The Hirakud Dam (largest earthen dam in the world), near Sambalpur (Odisha).

·        Outflow: Bay of Bengal near Paradeep at False Point, Odisha.

·        Nickname: Known as the “Sorrow of Orissa” before the construction of Hirakud Dam.

·       Origin: Western Ghats, near Nashik, Maharashtra.

·       Length: 1,465 km.

·       Drainage Basin: Shared by Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh.

·       Flow: Flows eastwards through Telangana and Andhra Pradesh; forms a large delta at Bay of Bengal.

·       Delta: Along with Krishna delta, forms the Rice Granary of South India.

·       Dams: First major dam constructed by Sir Arthur Cotton at Rajahmundry in 19th century.

·       Tributaries: Penganga, Indravati, Pranhita, Manjra.

·        Length: 1,401 km.

·        Drainage Basin: Shared by Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana.

·        Outflow: Bay of Bengal at Hamsaladeevi, Andhra Pradesh.

·        Tributaries: Tungabhadra, Dudhganga, Koyana, Ghatprabha, Musi, Bhima.

Kaveri (Cauvery)

·        Origin: Brahmagiri Range, Western Ghats, Kodagu district, Karnataka.

·        Length: 800 km.

·        Drainage Basin: Shared by Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Puducherry.

·        Notable Feature: Second-largest waterfall in India, Shivasamudram Falls.

·        Monsoon Influence: Receives rainfall during summer, retreating, and winter monsoons; flows year-round with less fluctuation.

·        Tributaries: Kabini, Bhavani, Amravati, Hemavati.

·        East Flowing Small Rivers – Subarnarekha, Baitarani, Brahmani, Vamsadhara, Penner, Palar, Vaigai

·       Monsoon Origin: The term “monsoon” comes from the Arabic word ‘mausim’, meaning seasons.

·       Seasonal Winds: Monsoons involve the seasonal reversal of winds: south-west to north-east in summer and north-east to south-west in winter.

Mechanism of Winter Weather

·       Surface Pressure and Winds: High-pressure areas-Central Asia push dry winds into India, creating a cold, dry winter climate.

·       Jet Streams: Westerly jet streams (altitude 9-13 km) influence the upper air, split by the Himalayas into northern and southern branches.

·       Western Cyclonic Disturbances: Brought from the Mediterranean, they affect northern India’s winter weather, often resulting in precipitation.

Mechanism of Summer Weather

1.      Surface Pressure and Winds: The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) moves northwards during summer, shifting wind circulation, leading to the onset of southwest monsoon winds.

2.      Jet Streams: Easterly jet streams affect monsoon rainfall patterns, guiding tropical depressions that determine monsoon intensity.

·       Climate: Sum of weather conditions over a large area for a long period (over 30 years).

·       Elements: Both weather and climate involve temperature, pressure, humidity, wind, and precipitation.

Regional Variations in India

·        Temperature: Churu (Rajasthan) – 50°C+, Tawang (Arunachal Pradesh) ~19°C in June. Drass (Ladakh) -45°C, while Thiruvananthapuram/Chennai ~20°C on the same day.

·        Precipitation: Cherrapunji and Mawsynram (Meghalaya) get over 1080 cm of rainfall, while Jaisalmer (Rajasthan) gets less than 9 cm annually.

Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

• Definition: A low-pressure belt at equatorial latitudes where trade winds converge.
• Seasonal Movement: ITCZ shifts north during July (20°N-25°N) and moves south in winter, causing monsoon reversals (southwest monsoon in summer, northeast monsoon in winter).

Key Wind Patterns:

• Southwest Monsoon: Blows from southwest to northeast, bringing summer rains.
• Northeast Monsoon: Blows from northeast to southwest, impacting winter rainfall.

·       Latitude: Tropic of Cancer divides India. Southern areas in the tropical zone (warmer) and northern parts in the sub-tropical zone (more extreme climate).

·       Himalayan Mountains: Serve as a climate barrier, preventing cold winds from Central Asia and trapping monsoon winds.

·       Land and Water Distribution: Three sides of India are surrounded by oceans, influencing monsoon patterns through differential heating.

·       Distance from the Sea: Coastal areas experience moderate climates, whereas continental regions have extreme temperatures.

·       Altitude: Higher altitudes (e.g., Darjeeling) are cooler than lowland areas (e.g., Agra) despite similar latitudes.

·       Relief: Regions like the Western Ghats experience high rainfall, while the leeward side (southern plateau) remains dry.

Air Pressure and Wind Factors:

·       Pressure Systems: Winter high-pressure systems in Central Asia push dry continental winds towards India, influencing northwestern winds.

·       Jet Streams: Subtropical westerly jet streams influence India’s winter climate. A southern branch significantly affects winter weather south of the Himalayas.

·       Western Cyclones & Tropical Depressions: Western disturbances bring winter rain to northern India. Tropical cyclones hit southern coasts during the monsoon season.

Mechanism:

·        Differential Heating: Land heats and cools faster than water, creating pressure differences.

·        ITCZ: Positions over Ganga plain in summer, forming the monsoon trough.

·        High-Pressure Area: Over the Indian Ocean near Madagascar, affecting monsoon intensity.

·        Tibetan Plateau: Intense heating forms low pressure at 9 km altitude.

·        Jet Streams: Westerly and easterly jet streams influence the monsoon system.

Southern Oscillations & El-Nino:

·        Southern Oscillation: Pressure reversal between the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean.

·        El-Nino: Warm ocean current along Peru’s coast, affects trade winds and India’s monsoon. Predicts weaker or delayed monsoons.

Monsoon Impact

·        Agriculture: Over 75% of India’s rainfall occurs during the monsoon, essential for Kharif crops.

·        Cyclones: Frequent during the retreating monsoon, hitting Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and coastal regions.

·       The sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer in summer, heating land and creating low pressure in north-western India.

·       South-east trade winds cross the equator, deflected as south-west monsoon winds.

·       The south-west monsoon hits the Kerala coast by 1st June, splitting into Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal branches.

·       Monsoon arrival in Assam by 1st week of June, Delhi by end of June, and rest of India by mid-July.

Breaks in Monsoon:

·       Rain interruptions occur due to changes in the monsoon trough and wind direction.

Retreating Monsoon:

·       Starts withdrawing from north-west India by September, completes withdrawal by December.

·       Marked by clear skies, rising temperatures, and October heat.

Important Monsoon Winds

·       Arabian Sea Branch: Splits into three parts:

1.      Hits Western Ghats, heavy rain (250-400 cm).

2.      Moves along Narmada/Tapi valleys into Central India.

3.      Hits Saurashtra Peninsula, moves to Rajasthan.

·       Bay of Bengal Branch: Deflected by Arakan Hills into West Bengal and Brahmaputra valley, causing maximum rainfall in northeast India.

• Duration: Mid-November to February.
• Lowest temperatures: Northern plains experience cold waves; frost in Punjab, Haryana, and snowfall in Himalayas.
• Temperature gradient: Decreases from south to north.
• Rainfall: Western disturbances bring rain to north-western India and snowfall in Himalayan regions.
• Wind pattern: Dominated by northeast trade winds.

2. Hot Weather Season (Summer):

• Duration: April to June.
• Temperature rise: Highest in north-west India (up to 45°C); moderate temperatures in Peninsular India due to proximity to oceans.
• Local winds:

o   Loo: Hot, dry winds in north and northwest India.

o   Kaal Baisakhi: Violent thunderstorms in West Bengal and Assam.

o   Mango Showers: Pre-monsoon rains in Kerala and coastal Karnataka, help in ripening mangoes.

• Trough formation: ITCZ shifts northward, creating a low-pressure monsoon trough.

3. South-West Monsoon Season (Rainy Season):

• Onset: Begins in early June over the Kerala coast.
• Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal branches: Deliver heavy rainfall to Western Ghats, Assam, and Ganga plains.
• Rainfall variation: Western Ghats receive 250-400 cm; Tamil Nadu coast remains relatively dry.
• Rainfall distribution: Decreases from east to west in Ganga plains.

4. Retreating Monsoon Season (Post-Monsoon Season):

• Duration: October to November.
• Cyclonic storms: Frequent over the Bay of Bengal, affecting Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu.
• October Heat: Hot and humid conditions due to moist land and clear skies.
• Monsoon withdrawal: Completes by early December, starting from northwest India.

• El Niño: Periodic warming of ocean currents along Peru’s coast; part of the ENSO system (El Niño, La Niña, Southern Oscillation).
• ENSO: Global climate phenomenon impacting weather, agriculture, and economies worldwide.

Impacts of El Niño:

• Agricultural Disruption:
  • Drought: Australia, Southeast Asia, and India experience reduced crop yields (e.g., rice, soybean, cotton, maize).
  • Fishing Industry: Warm waters decrease plankton, affecting fish stocks along Peru’s coast and global fish supply.
• Economic Consequences:
  • Food Inflation: Reduced agricultural output leads to food scarcity and rising prices.
  • Industry Impact: Sectors like textiles, edible oil, and food processing suffer due to poor monsoon rains and scarce agricultural inputs.
• Global Weather Effects:
  • Extreme Weather: Floods in South America and US Midwest affect coffee, cocoa, and cereal production.
  • Forest Fires: Droughts in Indonesia increase the risk of forest fires, leading to environmental degradation.

Role of Other Climatic Phenomena:

• ENSO Interaction: El Niño interacts with Indian Ocean Dipole, Rossby waves, jet streams, and polar vortices, influencing global weather.
• Climate Change: Global warming may increase El Niño frequency and intensity, worsening weather extremes.

·       Classification: Various climatologists – tried to divide India into climatic regions based on temperature and precipitation. The classification is complex, & different schemes exist.

Subtypes: Defined by small letters:

·       f: Sufficient precipitation.

·       w: Winter dry season.

·       h: Hot and dry.

·       g: Gangetic plain.

·       c: Less than 4 months with mean temperature over 10°C.

Main Climatic Types:

1.      Tropical Climates (A):

·       Mean monthly temperature above 18°C throughout the year.

2.      Dry Climates (B):

·       Precipitation is low compared to temperature, creating dry conditions.

·       Semi-arid (S): Lesser dryness.

·       Arid (W): Higher dryness.

3.      Warm Temperate Climates (C):

·       Mean temperature of the coldest month between 18°C and -3°C.

4.      Cool Temperate Climates (D):

·       Mean temperature of the warmest month over 10°C; coldest month below -3°C.

5.      Ice Climates (E):

·       Mean temperature of the warmest month below 10°C.

·        Soil Formation Factors: Influenced by parent material, relief, climate, vegetation, life forms, and time.

Soil Composition:

1.      Inorganic/ mineral fraction from parent material.

2.      Organic matter from decayed plants and animals.

3.      Air.

4.      Water.

Causes of Land Degradation:

A. Deforestation:

·        Forests prevent soil erosion by holding soil with tree roots.

·        Loss of trees leads to soil being washed away by rain, floods, or wind.

B. Overgrazing:

·        Livestock grazing without rotation depletes vegetation.

·        Lack of growth leads to soil exposure and degradation.

C. Waterlogging:

·        Poor irrigation or drainage causes excessive water to mix with groundwater.

·        Salt brought up from groundwater damages soil fertility.

D. Desertification:

·        Occurs in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid regions.

·        Human activities and natural factors transform land into desert-like conditions.

E. Soil Erosion:

·        Wind and water displace the topsoil, the most fertile layer.

·        Loss of topsoil reduces land’s mineral content, lowers crop yield potential, and can lead to sinkholes.

Water Resources:

Composition of Earth’s Water:

·        Saltwater: 97% of Earth’s water.

·        Freshwater: 3% of Earth’s water.

o   Over 2/3^rd of freshwater -frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps.

o   Most of the remaining freshwater exists as groundwater.

Sources of Water:

·        Natural Sources: Surface water, groundwater, under river flow, and frozen water.

·        Artificial Sources: Treated wastewater (reuse) and desalinated seawater.

Human Uses:

·        Agriculture, industry, household needs, recreation, and environmental conservation.

Threats:

·        Water scarcity, pollution, conflicts over water, and climate change are major concerns.

·        Groundwater depletion is an increasing issue in regions like Asia, South America, and North America.

·        Coverage: ~40% of India’s total land area.

·        Location: Northern plains, river valleys, deltas (eastern coast).

·        Source: Derived from Himalayan deposits.

·        Color: Light grey to ash grey.

·        Texture: Sandy loam to clay, rich in potash but poor in phosphorus.

·        Types:

o   Khadar: New alluvium, floodplains, renewed annually by fresh silt.

o   Bhangar: Old alluvium, away from flood plains, contains calcium carbonate (kankars).

·        Crops: Wheat, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseeds.

·        Distribution: Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, and Krishna river valleys.

2. Red and Yellow Soil

·        Coverage: ~18.5%.

·        Location: Eastern, southern Deccan Plateau, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Western Ghats.

·        Formation: Weathering of metamorphic and crystalline rocks.

·        Color: Red (iron) and yellow (hydration of iron oxides).

·        Characteristics: Fertile when fine-grained; coarse-grained soils are less fertile.

·        Nutrients: Deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus, humus.

·        Crops: Cotton, wheat, oilseeds, pulses, tobacco.

·        Coverage: ~15%.

·        Location: Deccan Plateau (Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu).

·        Characteristics: Clayey, deep, retains moisture, swells when wet and develops cracks when dry.

·        Color: Deep black to grey.

·        Nutrients: Rich in iron, lime, magnesium, but deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus.

·        Crops: Cotton, sugarcane, groundnut, citrus fruits.

·        Special Feature: Good moisture-retaining capacity, supports dry farming.

4. Desert Soil (Arid Soil)

·        Coverage: ~4.42%.

·        Location: Rajasthan, Gujarat.

·        Characteristics: Sandy, gravelly, low water-retaining capacity, saline in nature.

·        Nutrients: Contains normal phosphate, deficient in nitrogen.

·        Formation: Forms kankar layers due to high calcium content.

·        Crops: Millets, barley, wheat (with irrigation).

5. Laterite Soil

·        Coverage: ~3.7%.

·        Location: Western Ghats, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Odisha.

·        Formation: Result of intense leaching due to heavy rainfall.

·        Characteristics: Poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate, rich in iron and potash.

·        Crops: Tea, coffee, cashew nuts, rubber.

·        Special Feature: Used for making bricks in southern India.

·        Location: Hilly and forested areas (Himalayas, Western Ghats).

·        Characteristics: Coarse-grained on upper slopes, loamy and fertile in valleys.

·        Acidity: Found in snowbound areas, acidic with low humus content.

·        Crops: Tea, spices, plantation crops (at lower altitudes).

7. Peaty and Marshy Soils

·        Location: Coastal areas of West Bengal, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Bihar.

·        Formation: Found in regions of heavy rainfall, high humidity.

·        Characteristics: Rich in humus, organic matter, heavy and black in color.

·        Crops: Rice, jute (in coastal and deltaic areas).

8. Saline and Alkaline Soils

·        Location: Western Gujarat, deltas of eastern coast, Rann of Kutch, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh.

·        Formation: Formed due to poor drainage in arid/semi-arid regions.

·        Characteristics: High in sodium, magnesium, potassium, infertile.

·        Reclamation: Gypsum application, improved drainage, salt-resistant crops.

·        Crops: Berseem, dhaincha (in reclaimed areas).

·       India’s Flora: Due to India’s diverse geography and climate, it is rich in varied flora and fauna.

Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests:

• Precipitation: More than 200 cm.
• Locations: Northeastern states (Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland), Western Ghats, Terai region of Himalayas, Andaman Islands, Khasi & Jaintia Hills.
• Common Trees: Sandalwood, Rosewood, Garjan, Mahogany, Bamboo.
• Vegetation: Dense, multilayered forest structure with trees, shrubs, and creepers.
• Wildlife: Elephants, monkeys, lemurs.

• Precipitation: 100 cm to 200 cm.
• Locations: Lower Himalayas, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Odisha, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Jharkhand.
• Dominant Species: Teak, along with Deodar, Blue Gum, Pal Ash, Sal, Sandalwood, Ebony.
• Leaf Shedding: Trees shed leaves in dry winter and summer.
• Subtypes: Moist and dry deciduous, based on water availability.

Dry Deciduous Forests:

• Precipitation: 50 cm to 100 cm.
• Locations: Central Deccan Plateau, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan.

Mountain (Montane) Forests:

• Variation: Vary by altitude in mountainous regions.
• Lower Slopes: Up to 1500m, evergreen trees like Sal, Teak, Bamboo.
• Higher Slopes: Temperate coniferous trees such as Pine, Fir, Oak.
• Alpine Zones: Rhododendrons, Junipers, Alpine grassland

• Locations: Coastal areas and deltas of rivers like the Cauvery, Krishna, Mahanadi, Godavari, Ganga.
• West Bengal: Known as Sundarbans, with Sundari as the primary tree.
• Other Trees: Hogla, Garan, Pasur.
• Uses: Important for the timber industry (timber, firewood).
• Coastal Beautification: Palm and Coconut trees.

Semi-desert and Desert Vegetation:

• Precipitation: Less than 50 cm.
• Locations: Parts of Gujarat, Punjab, Rajasthan.
• Common Plants: Thorny bushes, Acacia, Babul, Indian Wild Date.
• Adaptations: Long roots and water-storing stems to survive drought conditions.

Types of Minerals:

·        Metallic: Sources of metals (e.g., iron ore, copper, gold). Classified into:

o   Ferrous: Contain iron (e.g., iron ore, manganese, chromite).

o   Non-Ferrous: Do not contain iron (e.g., copper, bauxite).

·        Non-Metallic: Includes organic minerals like coal, petroleum, and inorganic ones like mica, limestone.

Distribution of Minerals in India:

·        Peninsular Plateau: Most metallic minerals found in old crystalline rocks.

·        Alluvial Plains: North Indian plains are devoid of minerals.

·        Major Coal Reserves: Found in the Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi, and Godavari valleys.

·        Petroleum: Found in Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai High, and newer reserves in Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins.

Mineral Concentration in India:

North-Eastern Plateau Region:

o   States: Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh.

o   Key Minerals: Iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite, mica.

Southern-Western Plateau Region:

o   States: Karnataka, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala.

o   Key Minerals: Iron ore, manganese, limestone, monazite (Kerala), bauxite.

North-Western Region:

o   States: Rajasthan, Gujarat.

o   Key Minerals: Copper, zinc, gypsum, petroleum (Gujarat), building stones (Rajasthan).

Himalayan Belt:

o   Key Minerals: Copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, tungsten, oil in Assam.

·        Types: Haematite & Magnetite – main types.

·        Uses: Essential for the steel industry.

·        Key States: Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Tamil Nadu.

·        Key Mines:

o   Odisha: Mayurbhanj (Gurumahisani, Sulaipat), Sundergarh (Bonai).

o   Jharkhand: Noamundi, Gua (Singhbhum district).

o   Karnataka: Sandur-Hospet (Ballari district), Kudremukh.

o   Goa: Rich deposits of high-grade iron ore.

2. Manganese:

·        Uses: Key for smelting iron ore and manufacturing ferro-alloys.

·        Key States: Odisha, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh.

·        Key Locations:

o   Odisha: Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundergarh.

o   Karnataka: Dharwad, Ballari, Chitradurga.

o   Maharashtra: Nagpur, Bhandara.

o   Madhya Pradesh: Balaghat-Chhindwara belt.

·        Uses: Main ore for producing aluminum.

·        Key States: Odisha, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh.

·        Key Locations:

o   Odisha: Kalahandi, Koraput.

o   Jharkhand: Lohardaga district.

o   Gujarat: Bhavnagar, Jamnagar.

o   Maharashtra: Kolaba, Ratnagiri, Satara.

o   Chhattisgarh: Amarkantak plateau.

4. Copper:

·        Uses: Widely used in electrical equipment like wires, motors, and generators.

·        Key States: Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan.

·        Key Locations:

o   Jharkhand: Singhbhum district.

o   Madhya Pradesh: Balaghat district.

o   Rajasthan: Jhunjhunu, Alwar.

5. Mica:

·        Uses: Essential for electrical and electronic industries due to its insulating properties.

·        Key States: Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan.

Key Locations:

·        Jharkhand: Hazaribagh.

·        Andhra Pradesh: Nellore.

·        Rajasthan: Jaipur to Bhilwara belt.

·        Uses: Key raw material in cement industry and for lime production.

·        Key States: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh.

7. Coal:

·        Uses: Main energy resource for power generation and industrial use.

·        Key Locations:

o   Damodar Valley (Jharkhand, West Bengal).

o   Mahanadi Valley (Chhattisgarh, Odisha).

o   Godavari Valley (Andhra Pradesh, Telangana).

8. Petroleum:

·        Uses: Key energy resource for transport and industry.

·        Key Locations:

o   Assam: Digboi.

o   Gujarat: Ankleshwar, Cambay.

o   Mumbai High: Offshore oil fields.

·        Types: Found in Gondwana and Tertiary deposits.

·        Gondwana Coal Fields: Account for 80% of coal, mainly bituminous, non-coking type.

·        Important Coal Fields:

o   Damodar Valley: Jharia (largest coal field), Raniganj, Bokaro, Giridih.

o   Other River Valleys: Godavari, Mahanadi, Sone.

·        Key Mining Centres: Singrauli (Madhya Pradesh), Korba (Chhattisgarh), Talcher and Rampur (Odisha), Chanda-Wardha (Maharashtra), Singareni (Telangana).

·        Tertiary Coal: Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh (e.g., Darangiri, Cherrapunji, Makum, Namchik-Namphuk).

·        Lignite: Found in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Puducherry, Jammu & Kashmir.

Key Deposits:

·        Assam: Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran.

·        Gujarat: Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba.

·        Mumbai High: Offshore, discovered in 1973, production began in 1976.

Emerging Fields: Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins (east coast).

Oil Refineries: Field-based (Digboi), Market-based (Barauni).

·        Key Fields: Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai High, Tripura, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh.

·        GAIL (Gas Authority of India Ltd.): Established in 1984 to manage gas distribution.

Nuclear Energy

Minerals:

·       Uranium: Found- Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Udaipur, Alwar (Rajasthan), Chhattisgarh (Durg), Himachal Pradesh (Kullu).

·       Thorium: Derived – monazite sands in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh (Vishakhapatnam), Odisha (Mahanadi Delta).

·        Nuclear Power Projects: Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rawatbhata (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga (Karnataka), Kakrapar (Gujarat).

·        Atomic Energy Commission: Set up in 1948; Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (Trombay, 1954).

• Technology: Photovoltaic cells and solar thermal systems.
• Uses: Solar heaters, dryers, cookers, crop dryers.
• Advantages: Environment-friendly, efficient, 7-10% more effective than coal and nuclear energy.
• Key Regions: Gujarat, Rajasthan (high solar energy potential).

·        Mechanism: Kinetic energy of wind converted to electricity using turbines.

·        Advantages: Pollution-free, inexhaustible.

·        Key States: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka (favorable wind conditions).

Tidal and Wave Energy:

·        Potential: Ocean currents along the west coast of India offer significant energy potential.

·        Development Areas: Coastal regions of India, especially along the western coastline.

• Process: Heat from Earth’s interior used for energy production.
• Key Project: Manikaran Geothermal Energy Plant (Himachal Pradesh).

Bio-Energy:

• Sources: Agricultural residues, municipal waste, industrial waste.
• Uses: Converts waste into electrical energy, heat, or gas for cooking.
• Benefits: Reduces environmental pollution, improves rural economy, reduces dependence on fuelwood.
• Key Project: Waste-to-energy plant in Okhla, Delhi.

• Sustainability: Must balance economic growth with environmental conservation.
• Recycling: Use of scrap metals (copper, lead, zinc) helps conserve natural resources.
• Substitutes: Encourage use of alternative materials for scarce minerals.
• Export Restrictions: Limit the export of scarce minerals to preserve domestic reserves.

·        Replenishment: Through precipitation.

·        Loss: Due to discharge to oceans, evaporation, and groundwater recharge.

·        Human Impact:

o   Increased storage (reservoirs) and decreased storage (draining wetlands).

·        Augmentation: Importing surface water from another watershed via canals/pipelines.

·        Key Areas: Himalayas (“Roof of the World”).

·        Impact: Supports 10 of Asia’s largest rivers and over a billion people.

·        Climate Change: Himalayas warming faster than global average.

Groundwater

·        Definition: Water beneath Earth’s surface in rock/soil pore spaces.

·        Availability: 30% of world’s freshwater.

·        Aquifers: Rocks yielding usable quantities of water.

·        Water Table: Saturation level in soil/rock fractures.

·        Uses: Agriculture, municipal, industrial.

Under River Flow

·        Definition: Water flowing beneath rivers in hyporheic zones.

·        Significance: Subsurface flow often exceeds visible flow in large valleys.

·        Types: Urban, agricultural, industrial, environmental, and potable reuse.

Technologies:

·        Ozonation, ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, aerobic treatment (membrane bioreactor).

·        Applications: Human consumption, irrigation, maritime use.

·        Methods:

o   Thermal (distillation), membrane-based (reverse osmosis).

·        By-product: Brine (concentrated salt solution).

·        Challenges: High energy consumption, making it costlier than other sources.

·       Economic importance: Food security, employment, and foreign exchange.

·       Marine biodiversity: Rich in fish, crustaceans, molluscs, seaweeds.

·       Employment: Millions directly/indirectly engaged in fisheries.

·       Production: Six-fold increase in marine fish production over 70 years.

Economic Significance

·        GDP contribution: Significant, especially in fisheries.

·        Marine fish production plateau: Need to explore myctophids and deep-water species.

·        Sustainability: Vital to maintain marine resources through sustainable fishing.

Issues Affecting Marine Resources

1.      Overcapacity: Excessive fishing, stock depletion, economic loss.

2.      Indiscriminate exploitation: Use of small-mesh gear harms biodiversity.

3.      Post-harvest losses: Due to inadequate storage, spoilage, and discard rates.

4.      Habitat degradation: From pollution, agricultural runoff, industrial discharges, oil spills.

5.      Climate change: Rising temperatures, salinity shifts, ocean acidification impact marine ecosystems.

·        Economic activities: Fishing, oil/gas exploration, renewable energy.

·        Conservation: Enforcing regulations to prevent overfishing, promoting sustainable resource use.

Global Biodiversity Outlook 5 (GBO-5) Findings

·        Aichi Biodiversity Targets: None fully achieved, six partially met.

·        India’s progress: Surpassing some targets (e.g., Sixth National Report to CBD).

Key Measures by India

·        Gender and community integration: Involvement of women, indigenous peoples.

·        Wetland Conservation Rules (2017): Promotes ‘wise use’ of resources.

·        Microplastic ban: Prohibition on microplastics smaller than 5mm in personal care products.

·        Coral reef protection: Through COMAPS and CBAS.

·        Mangrove conservation: In Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.

·        Plastic recovery initiatives: E.g., Suchitwa Mission in Kerala (25 tonnes recovered in 10 months).

International Alliances

·        Blue Carbon Initiative: Focus on mangrove conservation for climate mitigation.

·        Blue Nature Alliance: Large-scale ocean conservation (e.g., Fiji, Antarctica).

·        London Convention (1972): Prevents marine pollution from dumping wastes.

·        International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI): Works to preserve coral reefs globally.

Reasons for Water Disputes

1.      Population growth: Increased demand for water.

2.      Agricultural expansion: Water-intensive crops (e.g., sugarcane).

3.      Industrial demand: For manufacturing, power generation.

4.      Rainfall shortages: Altered patterns due to climate change.

5.      Regionalism: Political factors exacerbate disputes.

6.      Historical reasons: Long-standing conflicts (e.g., Karnataka-Tamil Nadu).

Effects of Interstate River Water Disputes

1.      Political exploitation: Vote bank politics.

2.      National unity: Disputes undermine federalism.

3.      Violence: Migrants targeted during conflicts.

4.      Developmental impasse: Stalled projects.

Dispute Resolution Mechanisms

1.      Negotiation: Mutual agreements, though vulnerable to political changes.

2.      Tribunals:

o   Article 262: For dispute adjudication.

o   River Boards Act (1956): Regulation and development of rivers.

o   Inter-State River Water Disputes Act (1956): Union government empowered to set up tribunals.

Interstate River Water Disputes Tribunals

·        Quasi-judicial body: Final decisions are binding.

·        Permanent Tribunal (Amendment Bill 2019): Multiple benches, final decision within 2 years.

2.      Permanent Tribunal: Creation – permanent tribunal -multiple benches.

3.      Composition: Tribunal includes Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson, judicial, and expert members appointed by Union Government.

4.      Decision Time: Tribunal must resolve disputes within 2 years, extendable by 1 year.

5.      State’s Reference: States must submit reports within 1 year, with a 6-month extension if needed.

6.      Final Decision: Tribunal’s decisions are final and binding without needing official gazette publication.

·        Land Quality: Directly affects productivity and social value in rural areas.

·        Cultivable Land: Includes net sown area, fallow lands, and culturable wasteland.

·        Decline in Cultivable Land: Marginal decline over the years due to urbanization and industrialization.

·        Land-Saving Technologies: Needed to improve yield per unit area and increase land-use intensity.

Cropping Seasons in India

·        Kharif Season (June-September): Key crops include rice, cotton, jowar, bajra, primarily grown in the tropical monsoon season.

·        Rabi Season (October-March): Key crops like wheat, gram, mustard, grown during the cooler, dry season.

·        Zaid Season (April-June): Includes crops like watermelon, cucumber, and vegetables; short summer season between Rabi and Kharif.

·        Southern India: Crops can be grown year-round due to adequate soil moisture and irrigation.

Types of Farming

·        Irrigated Farming: Can be protective (to prevent moisture deficiency) or productive (to increase soil moisture for higher yields).

·        Rainfed Farming:

o   Dryland Farming: In regions with less than 75 cm rainfall, crops like ragi, bajra, gram.

o   Wetland Farming: In areas with excessive rainfall, growing water-intensive crops like rice, sugarcane.

·        Rice: Staple food, covering significant cropland, -varieties like ‘aus,’ ‘aman,’ and ‘boro’ in West Bengal; India produced 21.6% of world rice (2016).

·        Wheat: Main Rabi crop, 14% of cropped area; major producers – Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana.

·        Jowar: Grown in semi-arid areas; Maharashtra – leading producer (5.3% of cropped area).

·        Bajra: Hardy crop grown – Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana; 5.2% of the total cropped area.

·        Maize: Imp – semi-arid regions; major producers include Karnataka, MP, Rajasthan (3.6% of cropped area).

Pulses

·        Gram: Leading pulse crop, grown in Rabi season, major producers include Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan.

·        Tur (Arhar): Grown mainly in central and southern India; Maharashtra is the largest producer.

Oilseeds

·        Groundnut: Major oilseed crop, India produced 16.6% of global output (2016); Gujarat is the largest producer.

·        Rapeseed & Mustard: Key Rabi season oilseed; Rajasthan is the largest producer.

·        Soybean: Primarily grown in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, accounting for 90% of production.

·        Sunflower: Mainly grown in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

• Type: Tropical crop, grown in kharif season in semi-arid areas.
• Varieties: Short staple (Indian) and long staple (American, ‘narma’).
• Conditions: Requires clear sky during flowering stage.
• Global Rank: India ranks 2nd in cotton production after China.
• Growing Areas: Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan (north-west); Gujarat, Maharashtra (west); Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu (south).
• Leading Producers: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Telangana.
• Yield: Higher in irrigated conditions (north-west); lower in rainfed areas (Maharashtra).

Jute

• Uses: Coarse cloth, bags, sacks, decorative items.
• Cash Crop: Mainly grown in West Bengal.
• Global Share: India produces 3/5th of the world’s jute.
• Growing Areas: West Bengal (75% of production), Bihar, Assam.
• Cropped Area: Accounts for 0.5% of total cropped area in India.

Other crops

Sugarcane

• Type: Tropical crop, mostly irrigated in India.
• Main Regions: Indo-Gangetic plain (Uttar Pradesh); western India (Maharashtra, Gujarat); southern India (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh).
• Global Share: India produces 19% of world sugarcane.
• Cropped Area: Covers 2.4% of total cropped area in India.
• Leading Producer: Uttar Pradesh (40% of production); other leading states: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh.
• Yield: Lower in northern India.

Tea

• Type: Plantation crop; black tea (fermented), green tea (unfermented).
• Origin: Indigenous to northern China.
• Conditions: Grown in hilly, well-drained soils in humid and sub-humid tropics.
• History: Introduced in 1840s in Assam; spread to West Bengal (Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri) and Nilgiri Hills in the Western Ghats.
• Global Share: India produces 21.1% of world tea (2016); ranks 2nd after China in exports.
• Leading Areas: Assam (53.2% of area), West Bengal, Tamil Nadu.

Coffee

• Type: Tropical plantation crop; seeds roasted for beverage.
• Varieties: Arabica (superior, in high demand), Robusta, Liberica.
• Global Rank: 7th in the world (3.7% of world coffee production, 2016).
• Growing Areas: Western Ghats (Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu); Karnataka produces 2/3rd of India’s coffee.

• Erratic Monsoon: Only 33% of land is irrigated; rest depends on monsoon rains, leading to droughts and floods.
• Low Productivity: Crop yields for rice, wheat, and oilseeds are lower compared to global standards; rainfed areas show poor productivity.
• Financial Constraints: High costs of inputs force small farmers into debt; reliance on loans from moneylenders.
• Lack of Land Reforms: Exploitative systems like Zamindari persisted; ineffective land reforms post-independence.
• Fragmented Landholdings: Small and fragmented farms are uneconomic for modern agriculture; consolidation not implemented everywhere.
• Subsistence Farming: Many farmers grow only for self-consumption, limiting commercial agriculture.
• Underemployment: Seasonal and massive underemployment, especially in unirrigated areas.
• Land Degradation: Faulty irrigation, overuse of chemicals, soil salinisation, and erosion degrade land quality.
• Chemical Overuse: Excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers leads to soil toxicity and environmental damage.

Planning of Agro-Climatic Zones

·        India’s Diversity: 329 million hectares with complex agro-climatic conditions.

·        Zones delineated based on soil, climate, physiography, and vegetation.

·       Divided – 15 broad zones.

·       Based on physiography, soils, climate, cropping patterns, irrigation, mineral resources.

·       Further subdivided –72 sub-zones.

·       Integrated – state and national planning.

2.      National Agricultural Research Project (NARP – ICAR):

·       127 agro-climatic zones.

·       Focused on location-specific research for solving agricultural constraints.

3.      Agro-Ecological Regions (NBSS & LUP):

·       20 agro-ecological zones based on growing periods, effective rainfall, soil groups.

·       Further divided into 60 sub-zones.

2.      Western Plain, Kachchh, and Kathiawar Peninsula

3.      Deccan Plateau

4.      Northern Plain and Central Highlands (Aravallis)

5.      Central Malwa Highlands, Gujarat Plains, Kathiawar Peninsula

6.      Deccan Plateau (hot semi-arid ecoregion)

7.      Deccan (Telangana) Plateau and Eastern Ghats

8.      Eastern Ghats, Tamil Nadu Plateau, Deccan (Karnataka)

9.      Northern Plain (hot sub-humid ecoregion)

10.   Central Highlands (Malwa, Bundelkhand, Eastern Satpura)

11.   Eastern Plateau (Chhattisgarh), hot sub-humid ecoregion

12.   Eastern (Chotanagpur) Plateau and Eastern Ghats

13.   Eastern Plain

14.   Western Himalayas

15.   Bengal and Assam Plains

16.   Eastern Himalayas

17.   North Eastern Hills (Purvanchal)

18.   Eastern Coastal Plain

19.   Western Ghats and Coastal Plain

20.   Andaman Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands

·        Definition: Agricultural transformation via high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of seeds, especially for wheat and rice.

·        Practices: Chemical fertilizers, pesticides, modern irrigation.

·        Result: Significant increase in food production.

Government Support & Ongoing Programs

·        Krishonnati Yojana, Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojna, National Food Security Mission, National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: Promote Green Revolution principles.

·        Balanced Nutrient Management: Use of organic fertilizers alongside chemical ones (e.g., Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana, Mission Organic Value Chain for N-E India).

The Evergreen Revolution

·        Proposed by: Dr. M.S. Swaminathan.

·        Aim: Sustainable increase in productivity.

·        Approach: Environmentally safe, economically viable, and socially sustainable agricultural development.

·       Long-Term Goals:

• Self-sufficiency in food production.
• Rural development.
• Industrial growth linked to agriculture.

Initiation & Implementation

·        Key Figures:

o   Norman Borlaug (“Father of the Green Revolution”).

o   M.S. Swaminathan in India.

·        Support: Indian government, Ford Foundation, Rockefeller Foundation.

·        Main Features: HYV seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, improved irrigation.

·       Rise in yields of wheat and rice.

·       India became one of the leading agricultural producers.

2.      Self-Sufficiency:

·       Transition from food-deficient to self-sufficient nation.

·       Reduced grain imports.

3.      Economic Benefits for Farmers:

·       Increased farmer income, particularly for large landowners.

4.      Industrial Growth:

·       Stimulated industries related to agricultural machinery and inputs.

5.      Employment Opportunities: Generated jobs in agriculture and related industries.

·        Soil degradation, water pollution, loss of biodiversity.

·        Groundwater depletion due to water-intensive crops.

2.Health Hazards:

·        Link between chemical pesticides and health issues like cancer in rural communities.

3. Regional Disparities:

·        Benefits concentrated in Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh.

·        Regions like Eastern India and arid areas lagged.

4.Exclusion of Non-Food Crops:

·        Focus on wheat and rice led to neglect of pulses, oilseeds, and commercial crops.

·        Limited agricultural diversity.

·       Drones & UAVs: Used for crop monitoring, spraying fertilizers, crop health assessments. Government promotes affordability.

·       AI & ML: Analyze agricultural data, predictive analytics for crop management, pest control, weather forecasting.

·       Blockchain: Enhances supply chain transparency; ensures fair farmer compensation and product accountability.

·       Mobile Apps: Provide weather forecasts, market prices, farming techniques; reduce middlemen, improve profitability.

·       Organic Farming: Growing trend; reduces chemical inputs, improves soil fertility, promotes eco-friendly practices.

·       Water Management: Drip irrigation, rainwater harvesting; Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayi Yojana (PMKSY) promotes “Per Drop More Crop.”

o   Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY): World’s largest crop insurance scheme.

o   Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN): Direct financial assistance to farmers.

·        Agricultural Infrastructure Fund (AIF): Funds warehouses, processing units, cold storage near farms to reduce post-harvest losses.

·        e-NAM (National Agriculture Market): Digital platform for market integration, transparent price discovery.

·        Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs): Nearly 8,000 registered by early 2024; improve access to markets, credit, and technology.

·        Sustainable Farming Initiatives: Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY), natural farming promotion; reduce environmental impact.

·       Allied Activities: Dairy, poultry, aquaculture; additional income sources.

·       Fisheries & Aquaculture: Growth due to Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY); aims to double fish production and exports.

·       Livestock Management: Rashtriya Gokul Mission improves genetic quality of livestock, enhances milk production.

·        Description: India’s largest irrigation project, channels water from Sutlej River, over 600 km long, irrigates Thar Desert.

·        Impact: Irrigates over 1.8 million hectares, boosts agriculture in the desert.

·        Command Area: 528,000 hectares

Narmada Valley Project

·        Location: Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra

·        Description: Uses Narmada River water through dams, canals; irrigates 1.7 million hectares.

·        Impact: Provides irrigation, drinking water, supports agriculture.

·        Command Area: 146,800 hectares

Krishna Godavari Project

·        Location: Andhra Pradesh

·        Description: Major river basin project, includes dams and canals, irrigates over 5 million hectares.

·        Impact: Provides drinking water, supports agriculture and power generation.

·        Command Area: 345,000-504,000 hectares

Bhakra Nangal Dam

·        Location: Himachal Pradesh (Sutlej River)

·        Description: One of India’s largest dams, built in 1963, holds 9.34 billion cubic meters.

·        Impact: Irrigates over 10 million hectares, generates 1,300 MW electricity.

·        Command Area: 4,000,000 hectares

·        Description: Irrigation project using Tungabhadra River; irrigates over 1.2 million hectares.

·        Impact: Supplies agricultural water and generates hydroelectric power.

·        Command Area: 574,000 hectares

Sardar Sarovar Project

·        Location: Gujarat (Narmada River)

·        Description: Multipurpose project with dams and canals; irrigates 1.8 million hectares.

·        Impact: Provides irrigation, power, and drinking water.

·        Command Area: 1,845,000 hectares

Hirakud Dam

·        Location: Odisha (Mahanadi River)

·        Description: 60 meters high, holds 4.7 billion cubic meters, irrigates over 2 million hectares.

·        Impact: Flood control, hydroelectric power, boosts agriculture.

·        Command Area: 1,000,000 hectares

Beas Project

·        Location: Punjab, Haryana

·        Description: Started in 1956, completed in 1974, diverts Beas River, includes dams and canals.

·        Impact: Irrigates over 3 million hectares, enhances agriculture.

·        Command Area: 2,100,000 hectares

·        Objective: Bridge gap b/n irrigation potential & utilization; improve agricultural productivity through water management.

Key Focus:

·        Hydraulic Connectivity: Ensures irrigation to tail-end farms with lined channels.

·        Micro-Irrigation: Introduces sprinkler, drip systems for 10% of the Culturable Command Area (CCA).

·        Underground Pipeline Network (UGPN): Promotes pipeline use for durability, ease, and land savings.

·        Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM): Strengthens Water User Associations (WUAs).

·        Training & Demonstration: For capacity-building of WUAs.

Benefits:

·        Increased irrigation efficiency and agricultural productivity.

·        Community involvement in irrigation management.

·        Sustainable water management using advanced techniques.

·       Agro-based industries: Use plant/animal products (e.g., food processing).

·       Marine-based industries: Use sea products (e.g., fishing, seafood processing).

2.      Based on Size:

·       Small-scale industries: Cottage/household industries, low capital/technology (e.g., handicrafts).

·       Large-scale industries: High investment, advanced tech (e.g., automobile production).

3.      Based on Ownership:

·       Private sector: Owned by individuals/groups (e.g., Tata Motors).

·       Public sector: Government-owned (e.g., Hindustan Aeronautics, SAIL).

·       Joint sector: State and individual ownership (e.g., Maruti Udyog).

·       Cooperative sector: Owned by workers or suppliers (e.g., Amul India, IFFCO).

2.      Access to Raw Materials: Heavy industries (e.g., steel, cement) located near raw materials to reduce transport costs.

3.      Access to Labor Supply: Mechanization reduces labor dependency but industrial areas benefit from labor pools.

4.      Access to Energy Sources: Power-intensive industries (e.g., aluminum) are located near coal, hydro, or petroleum sources.

5.      Access to Transportation and Communication: Well-developed infrastructure (e.g., Europe, North America) supports industrial growth.

6.      Government Policies:

·       Governments promote balanced development by incentivizing industries in particular regions.

7.     Agglomeration Economies:Industries cluster to reduce costs, share services, and innovate (e.g., tech hubs).

·        Iron and Steel: Vital to industrialization, globally significant in countries like – USA, China, Russia, and Germany.

·        Textile Industry: Concentrated in India, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.

·        Information Technology: Key hubs in Silicon Valley (USA) and Bangalore (India).

Iron and Steel Industry

·        Type: Feeder industry providing raw materials for other sectors.

·        Inputs: Iron ore, coal, limestone, labor, capital, infrastructure.

·        Process: Smelting and refining of iron ore into steel (backbone of modern industry).

Locations:

o   Key Centers: Bhilai, Durgapur, Burnpur, Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro (West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh).

o   Other Centers: Bhadravati, Vijayanagar (Karnataka), Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh), Salem (Tamil Nadu).

·        Significance: Catalyzed rapid industrial development in India.

·        Jamshedpur Steel Plant (TISCO): Founded in 1907, takes advantage of proximity to raw materials like coal (Jharia) and iron ore (Odisha, Chhattisgarh).

Cotton & Textile Industry

·        Overview: One of the oldest industries; relies on natural and man-made fibers.

·        Key Fibers: Cotton, wool, silk, jute, nylon, polyester.

Key Centers:

o   Mumbai: First mechanized textile mill in 1854; suitable climate and port access.

o   Ahmedabad: Second-largest textile hub (“Manchester of India”), established first mill in 1859.

o   Other Centers: Coimbatore, Kanpur, Chennai, Kolkata, Ludhiana, Puducherry, Panipat.

·        Historical Significance: Muslin of Dhaka, Chintzes of Masulipatnam, Calicos of Calicut known for global demand.

Petrochemical Industry

·        Scope: Involves production of chemicals like Ethylene, Propylene, Benzene; and synthetic fibers and plastics.

·        Growth Potential: Low per capita consumption, but growing demand.

·        Capacity: India’s petroleum-refining capacity exceeds 194 MTPA; world’s largest refinery located in India.

·        Key Products: Urea, caustic soda, sulfuric acid, synthetic rubber.

Automobile Industry

·        Pre-Independence: Limited to assembly of imported parts (e.g., General Motors 1928, Ford 1930).

·        Post-Independence: Premier Automobiles (1947) and Hindustan Motors (1948) marked the beginning.

·        Modern Era: Liberalization in 1991 led to massive growth; 15 manufacturers of passenger vehicles, 9 of commercial vehicles.

·        Economic Impact: Contributed ₹1,00,000 crores in 2003-04, with direct employment of 4.5 lakh and indirect employment of 1 crore.

Locations:

o   Key Centers: Mumbai, Chennai, Jamshedpur, Kolkata, Jabalpur.

o   Clusters:

§  South India (Chennai region, “India’s Detroit”).

§  West India (Ahmedabad to Pune).

§  North India (Haryana, Delhi-NCR).

o   Chennai: Major hub (40% revenue, 60% exports), hosts Ford, Hyundai, Renault, etc.

·        Significance: Second-largest agro-based industry in India; largest producer of cane sugar and sugarcane globally (8% of world production).

·        Employment: Over 4 lakh direct jobs, supporting a large number of farmers indirectly.

·        Location: Concentrated in cane-producing regions.

Key States:

o   Maharashtra: Top producer, 119 mills, 87 in the cooperative sector (produces 1/3 of India’s sugar).

o   Uttar Pradesh: Second-largest producer; sugar factories in Saharanpur, Meerut, Muzaffarnagar, and Terai region (Basti, Gorakhpur, etc.).

o   Tamil Nadu: Key districts: Coimbatore, Villupuram, Vellore, Tiruvannamalai.

o   Karnataka: Important districts: Belgaum, Mandya, Bellary, Shimoga, Chitradurga, Bijapur.

o   South India: Sugar production in coastal regions (East/West Godavari, Visakhapatnam, Telangana).

·        Other States: Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh.

Knowledge-Based Industries

·        Nature: Depend on human capital and technology (e.g., science, IT, education, finance, health).

·        India’s Potential: Youthful population with potential for ICT leadership if infrastructure, education, and regulation barriers are addressed.

·        AI: Global shift towards artificial intelligence, providing India an opportunity to enhance its knowledge-based economy.

Information & Technology Industries

·        Function: Involves storage, processing, and distribution of information.

·        Globalization: Industry became global due to technological, political, and economic changes.

Key IT Hubs in India:

o   Bengaluru: Known as “Silicon Valley of India.”

o   Emerging Centers: Mumbai, New Delhi, Hyderabad, Chennai, Pune, Gurgaon, Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, Chandigarh.

·        Silicon Valley Comparison: Both Bengaluru and California share features like skilled workforce, good climate, quality education, and market access.

Industrial System

·        Components:

o   Inputs: Raw materials, labor, land, transport, power, and infrastructure.

o   Processes: Converting raw materials into finished products.

o   Outputs: Finished goods and income generated.

Industrial Region or Cluster

·        Definition: Industrial regions form when multiple industries co-locate, benefiting from proximity.

Key Industrial Clusters in India:

o   Mumbai-Pune Cluster

o   Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Region

o   Hugli Region

o   Ahmedabad-Baroda Region

o   Chota Nagpur Belt

o   Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Belt

o   Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Region

o   Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Cluster

o   Maharashtra Industrial Region

·        Location: Spans Mumbai and Pune, connected by an electrified train route.

·        Labor: Ratnagiri provides skilled and unskilled labor.

·        Industry: About 6,000 manufacturers in Greater Maharashtra; Pune has over 1,150 licensed manufacturers.

Bengaluru-Chennai Industrial Region

·        Post-Independence: Rapid industrial growth; expansion from Mysore, Salem, and Chennai.

·        Power Source: Dependent on Pykara hydropower project (1932).

·        Industries: Textile, loom industry, heavy manufacturing, aircraft (HAL), and telecommunication (HTL).

·       Core: Kolkata-Hawra.

·       Resources: Tea from Assam, jute, Damodar Valley coal, Chotanagpur iron ore.

·       Industries: Jute, textiles, paper, chemicals, fertilizers, and electrical sectors.

·       Key Hubs: Kolkata and Howrah.

Gujarat Industrial Region

·        Location: Centers around Ahmedabad and Baroda, extending to Valsad and parts of Maharashtra.

·        Textiles: Growth linked to the collapse of Maharashtra’s handloom industry.

·        Diversification: Includes automobiles, petrochemicals, and pharmaceuticals.

·        Key Hubs: Jamnagar, Baroda, Valsad, Jodhpur, Ahmedabad.

Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Industrial Region

·        Location: Thiruvananthapuram, Alwaye, Cochin, Alappuzha.

·        Resources: Agricultural products and hydroelectric power.

·        Industries: Textile, sugar, rubber, glass, fertilizers, coir, and fish processing.

·        Key Hubs: Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram, Punalur.

·        Resources: Coal, iron ore, uranium, and other minerals.

·        Power: Supported by thermal and hydropower projects in the Damodar Valley.

·        Industries: Heavy industries, industrial machinery, cement, and electrical equipment.

Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Industrial Region

·        Location: Stretches from Visakhapatnam to Kurnool and Prakasam.

·        Key Drivers: Ports at Visakhapatnam and Machilipatnam, Godavari basin mineral deposits.

·        Industries: Sugar, jute, fertilizer, cement, metal, and construction.

Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Industrial Region

·        Industry Type: Light industries due to distance from mineral resources.

·        Main Industries: Telecommunications, construction, electronics, textiles, sugar, cement, machinery.

·        Emerging Sector: Software industry.

·        Adjacent Areas: Agra-Mathura focused on glass, leather, and petroleum refinery in Mathura.

·       Small Scale Focus: Emphasis on small-scale and cottage industries.

·       Restricted Foreign Investment: Limited role for foreign investments.

Four Industry Categories:

·        Exclusive Central Govt. Monopoly: Arms, atomic energy, railways.

·        State Undertakings: Coal, iron & steel, aircraft, shipbuilding, telegraph, etc.

·        Regulated by Government: Basic industries.

·        Private Sector: All other industries.

Three Sectors:

·        Schedule A: Public Sector (17 industries).

·        Schedule B: Mixed Sector (Public & Private, 12 industries).

·        Schedule C: Private Industries.

Provisions: Encouraged public sector growth, small-scale industries, and foreign investment.

Modifications: Adjusted in 1973, 1977, 1980 to meet challenges.

·       Tiny Unit Concept: Introduced a new category for small enterprises.

·       MNC Restrictions: Limited operations of multinational companies

·       Employment: Targeted employment for the poor and reducing wealth concentration

·       Licensing Relaxation: Allowed automatic capacity expansion.

·       MRTP Act & FERA: Introduced to regulate monopolies and foreign exchange.

·       Export-Oriented: Encouraged foreign investment in high-tech industries.

o   Liberalization: Reduced government control.

o   Privatization: Increased private sector participation.

o   Globalization: Integrated Indian economy with global markets.

·        FDI Reforms: Raised foreign direct investment (FDI) limit from 40% to 51% (up to 100% in selected sectors like infrastructure).

·        Industrial Licensing: Abolished for all but 18 industries.

·        Phased Manufacturing Programme: Abolished; focused on reducing imports.

·        Mandatory Convertibility Clause: Abolished; previously allowed banks to convert loans into equity.

·        MRTP Act: Relaxed in 1991; Competition Act 2000 replaced it for fostering competition.

·        Public Sector Reforms:

o   Disinvestment: Reduction in public sector investments.

o   De-reservation: Fewer industries reserved for the public sector.

o   Sick PSUs: Referred to BIFR (Board for Industrial and Financial Restructuring).

o   MoUs: Strengthened the scope of Memorandums of Understanding between PSUs and ministries.

• Lack of high-tech infrastructure: Especially in transport and skilled labor.
• Telecom limitations: Primarily in big cities.
• State Electricity Boards: Operating at losses.
• Transport issues: Overburdened railways; underdeveloped road networks.

MSME Sector & Credit

• Bias in credit availability: MSMEs face higher credit costs vs. large industries.
• Level playing field: Needed for MSME growth.

Reliance on Imports

• Foreign dependence: India imports transport equipment, machinery, chemicals, etc.
• Consumer goods production: 38% in India vs. higher levels in newly industrialized countries (e.g., South Korea: 52%).

Improper Industrial Location

• Political motivations: Industry placement often based on politics, not cost-effectiveness.

Public Sector Losses

• Inefficiency in public enterprises: Strained labor relations and red-tape lead to losses.
• Government burden: Public sector losses add to government expenditure.

·        PM Gati Shakti – National Master Plan: Improve multimodal connectivity.

·        Bharatmala Project: Enhance North-East connectivity.

·        Start-up India: Foster startup culture.

·        Make in India 2.0: Establish India as a global manufacturing hub.

·        Atmanirbhar Bharat: Reduce import dependence.

·        Disinvestment Plans: Economic recovery support.

·        Special Economic Zones (SEZs): Boost economic activity and exports.

·        MSME Innovative Scheme: Promote innovation and incubation for MSMEs.

·        Remove infrastructural bottlenecks: Faster capacity building in core sectors.

·        Leverage India’s demographic dividend: Large young workforce to drive growth.

·        Strengthen R&D: Focus on demand-driven industrial research.

·        Global manufacturing hub: Potential with Industry 4.0, young labor, lower wages than China.

·        Industrial Policy Reforms: Sustain growth with new policies and reforms.

• Second-largest Road network globally: 6.4 million kilometers.
• Roads carry 85% of passenger traffic and 70% of freight traffic.

Classification of Roads

1.      National Highways (NH): Built and maintained by the central government.

o   Golden Quadrilateral: Connects Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata.

o   North-South and East-West Corridors: Srinagar to Kanyakumari and Silchar to Porbandar.

o   142,126 km of NHs as of April 2019.

2.      State Highways (SH): Connect state capitals with district headquarters.

3.      District Roads: Link district HQs to other areas within districts.

4.      Rural Roads: Account for 80% of India’s road network.

Factors Influencing Roadways

• Terrain: Flat terrains favor easier road construction.
• Climate: Plains have better road quality.
• Economic Development & Urbanization: Better roads in developed and urbanized regions.

Recent Initiatives

• ETC (Electronic Toll Collection): Modernizing toll collection.
• NATRIP: National Automotive Testing and R&D Infrastructure Project to enhance vehicle testing and R&D.
• SARDP-NE: Road development for North-East region.
• Bharat Mala Project: Improve Indo-Myanmar border connectivity.
• Sagarmala Project: Port-led development.

• Fourth-largest rail network globally: 1,23,236 km, serving 23 million passengers and transporting 3 million tonnes of freight daily.

Significance

·        Economic Integration: Connects economic regions and supports industries.

·        Agricultural Impact: Facilitates agricultural commercialization.

·        Defense & Disaster Response: Key for defense logistics and emergency support.

Recent Developments

·        Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs): Funded by World Bank, Japan International Cooperation Agency.

·        PM Gati Shakti: Multi-modal connectivity for economic growth.

·        Atma Nirbhar Bharat: Domestic production of electric locomotives and smart coaches.

·        Kisan Rail: Special trains for transporting agricultural produce.

·        100% Electrification Target: Green fuel initiative.

·        Station Redevelopment: 400 stations being upgraded under PPP.

·        Digitization: Wi-Fi at 6,045 stations.

·        Vande Bharat Express: Indigenous semi-high-speed trains.

·        Historical Milestone: First airmail service in 1911; Air India started international services in 1948.

·        Market Size: India’s aviation sector is expanding rapidly, with operational airports expected to reach 190-200 by FY40.

Role in Regional Development:

·        Economic Growth: Airports act as growth hubs for regional economies.

·        Tourism Boost: Improves infrastructure for tourism.

·        Disaster Response: Crucial for relief efforts during emergencies.

Challenges:

·        High Costs: Expensive air travel and infrastructure.

·        Last-Mile Connectivity: Issues integrating air travel with other transport modes.

·        Safety Concerns: Weather and geography pose operational challenges.

·        Financial Sustainability: Airlines face financial losses despite rising demand.

Prospects:

• Rising Middle Class: Increasing air travel due to income growth.
• Government Initiatives: Schemes like UDAN to enhance regional connectivity.
• Modernization: PPP model for airport development and fleet expansion.

Recent Initiatives:

• UDAN: Aims to make air travel affordable and expand regional air connectivity.
• GAGAN: Satellite-based system for navigation accuracy.
• DigiSky and e-Sahaj: Digital platforms for drone regulation and security clearances.

Advantages:

·        Cost-Effective: Low infrastructure costs.

·        Energy Efficient: Fuel-efficient and eco-friendly.

·        Bulk Transport: Best for transporting heavy and bulky goods.

Types of Waterways:

1. Inland Waterways: Rivers, canals, lakes.
2. Ocean Transport: Coastal and overseas shipping, crucial for international trade.

National Waterways:

• NW-1: Allahabad to Haldia (Ganges).
• NW-2: Sadiya to Dhubri (Brahmaputra).
• NW-3: Kollam to Kottapuram (Kerala).
• NW-4: Kakinada to Pondicherry.
• NW-5: Orissa to West Bengal.
• NW-6: Lakhipur to Bhanga (Assam).

Ports:

• Major Ports: Kolkata, Paradip, Jawaharlal Nehru, Cochin, etc.
• Minor Ports: Around 200 non-major ports handle diverse cargo types.

Changing Trends and Direction of India’s Trade & WTO Role

• Post-Liberalization: Transition from protectionist policies to an open economy since 1990s, integrating India into global markets.
• Trade Diversification: Shift from developed countries to emerging markets like China, UAE, and Africa.
• Services Sector: IT services like Infosys, TCS, and Wipro contribute significantly to exports.
• Trade Agreements: Multiple FTAs and CEPAs enhance market access and economic cooperation (e.g., SAFTA, India-ASEAN FTA, India-Japan CEPA).

Export & Import Composition:

·        Exports: Shift from low-value to high-value products like pharmaceuticals, automotive components, electronics.

·        Imports: Crude oil and gold dominate, but increasing share of capital goods, technology inputs, reflecting industrial modernization.

Trade Volume Growth:

·        Substantial increase in both exports and imports due to liberalization, domestic demand, and global integration, positioning India as a major global trading nation.Bottom of Form

·       Trade Policy Review: WTO reviews ensure India’s trade policies align with global norms.

·       Dispute Settlement: India uses WTO’s system to address trade conflicts and safeguard interests.

·       Support for Multilateral Trade: India promotes a fair, rules-based trading system globally.

·       Special and Differential Treatment (S&DT): India benefits from flexible commitments for development needs.

·       Negotiations: India participates actively in WTO negotiations for market access and balanced rules.

• Third Largest Water Body: Indian Ocean vital for global trade and energy.
• Trade and Transport Hub: Handles 33% of bulk cargo, 66% of oil shipments.
• Resource-Rich: Offshore oil production accounts for 40% of world’s output.

Economic Importance:

1.      Mineral and Oil Resources: Major source of oil and gas for India.

2.      Key Sea Lanes: Critical routes like Strait of Hormuz, Bab al-Mandab, and Malacca for global trade.

3.      Fishing: Contributes 15% to global fish supply.

4.      Maritime Trade: Transports 75% of world’s trade, 50% of oil.

Strategic Importance:

1.      Coastal Security: India’s 7,500 km coastline needs protection.

2.      Choke Points: Strategic routes essential for energy security.

3.      Geopolitical Rivalry: Competing powers (China, US) enhance region’s importance.

4.      Naval Presence: India deploys vessels to secure key maritime areas.

·       Net Security Provider: Ensures peace through Malabar Exercises and regional initiatives.

·       Humanitarian Relief: Provides disaster aid, e.g., 2004 tsunami.

·       Blue Economy: Sagarmala Project promotes port-led growth.

·       Cultural and Diaspora Engagement: Strengthens ties through cultural diplomacy.

·       Space Technology: NavIC and GSAT-9 support regional navigation and communication.

Indian Ocean Policy

·       Strategic Vision: Ensures maritime security, strengthens regional ties.

·       Multilateral Cooperation: Active in SAARC, BIMSTEC, ASEAN, focusing on economic and maritime security.

·       Project Mausam: Revives ancient maritime routes to boost regional influence and cultural ties.

• Second Most Populous Country: India’s population in 2011 was 1.21 billion, larger than North America, South America, and Australia combined.

Distribution of Population

·        Uneven Distribution: High population concentration in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal.

·        Low Population States: Jammu & Kashmir (1.04%), Arunachal Pradesh (0.11%), despite having large geographical areas.

·        Physical and Socio-Economic Factors: Population denser in North Indian Plains, deltas, Coastal Plains compared to central, southern interior districts, Himalayas, and northeastern states.

·        Recent Population Growth Areas:

o   Development of irrigation (Rajasthan).

o   Mineral resources (Jharkhand).

o   Improved transport (Peninsular States).

·        Urbanization: Industrial growth attracted population to cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru, Kolkata.

Density of Population

·        Physiological Density: Total population / net cultivated area.

·        Agricultural Density: Agricultural population / net cultivable area.

Growth of Population

·        Natural Growth: Depends on birth and death rates.

·        Induced Growth: Migration patterns affect population change.

·        Current Growth Rate: 1.64% annually (2011).

• High birth and death rates, negative growth in 1911-1921 due to poor health services and food distribution.

Phase 2 (1921-1951) – Steady Growth

• Improved health and sanitation, falling mortality, stable high birth rate.

Phase 3 (1951-1981) – Population Explosion

• Rapid mortality decline, high fertility rate, 2.2% growth rate.
• International migration: Tibetans, Bangladeshis, Pakistanis contributed to growth.

Phase 4 (1981-Present) – Slowing Growth

• Crude birth rate decline, higher female education, rising age at marriage.
• Projected Population: 1.35 billion by 2025 (World Development Report).

·        Fall in Growth (2001-2011): Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh.

o   Lowest Fall: Andhra Pradesh (-3.5%).

o   Highest Fall: Maharashtra (-6.7%).

·        Growth Increase: Tamil Nadu (+3.9%), Puducherry (+7.1%).

Adolescent Population (2011)

·        Share of Adolescents: 20.9% (10-19 years age group).

o   Male: 52.7%.

o   Female: 47.3%.

·        Challenges: Early marriage, female illiteracy, school dropouts, poor nutrition, maternal mortality, HIV/AIDS, drug abuse, and juvenile crime.

·        Policies:

o   National Youth Policy (2014): Holistic vision for youth (15-29 years).

o   National Policy for Skill Development (2015): Umbrella for skilling and entrepreneurship.

• High Rural Population States: Bihar, Sikkim.
• Low Rural Population: Goa, Maharashtra.
• Urban Population Growth: Accelerating due to economic development and migration.
• Urban Areas: Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bengaluru, Ahmedabad.

Linguistic Composition

·       Languages: 22 scheduled, many non-scheduled.

·       Largest Language Group: Hindi speakers.

·       Smallest Language Groups: Sanskrit, Bodo, Manipuri.

• Hindus: Major group (70-90%) except in border regions, Jammu & Kashmir, Northeast, Deccan Plateau.
• Muslims: Concentrated in Jammu & Kashmir, West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Lakshadweep.
• Christians: Coastal Goa, Kerala, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland.
• Sikhs: Punjab, Haryana, Delhi.
• Jains: Urban Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra.
• Buddhists: Maharashtra, Sikkim, Ladakh, Arunachal Pradesh

o   High Worker Participation: Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka.

·        Non-workers: 60% of population.

Occupational Composition

·        Agriculture: 54.6% of workers are cultivators or agricultural laborers.

·        Non-agricultural Workers: 41.6% in trade, commerce, construction, services.

·        Household Industries: 3.8%.

·        Gender: Male workers outnumber females across sectors.

o   Comparison: Median age is 37 in China/USA, 45 in Europe, and 49 in Japan.

·        Working-Age Growth: Sharp rise in working population (15-64 years); Total Fertility Rate (TFR) decline due to improved living standards.

·        UN Population Fund:

o   Demographic dividend lasts from 2005-2056.

o   Varies by state due to population diversity.

Latest Updates (2022)

·        Median Age: India – 28.4 years, China/USA -37, Europe – 45, Japan – 49.

·        TFR: Halved since 1990; lower in Delhi, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu (1.5), higher in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, UP (2.5).

·        Schemes: Atmanirbhar Bharat, Make in India, Startup India promote demographic dividend utilization.

·       Women Empowerment: Demographic dividend increases women’s independence, lowers TFR, and fosters economic growth.

·       Middle-Class Shift: Opportunities for lower-income groups to move into the middle class, leading to an enlightened society.

·       Boost to Manufacturing: Younger workforce enhances productivity in manufacturing, benefiting the economy.

·       Historical Growth: Demographic dividend contributed 15% to advanced economies’ growth (e.g., Japan’s phase: 1964-2004).

·       Healthcare: Higher funding for improved medical infrastructure.

·       R&D: Allocation for research and development.

·       Skill Development: Focus on enhancing skills for a competitive workforce.

Benefits for India

·       Education: A better primary, secondary, and higher education system can harness the potential of the young population (41% below 20).

o   Higher Education Finance Agency (HEFA) – estb.

·       Skill Development: National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) aims to skill 500 million people by 2022.

·       Health: Initiatives like Ayushman Bharat and National Health Protection Scheme aim to improve health.

·       Job Creation: Need to create 10 million jobs per year; schemes like Startup India and Make in India aim to generate employment.

·       Human Development Index: India ranks 131/189 (UNDP 2020); improvement needed in health, education, and living standards.

·       Agriculture Dependency: 50% of the population is still engaged in agriculture, indicating disguised unemployment.

·       Unorganized Sector: Large number employed in low-wage, insecure jobs.

·       Gender Inequality: Women face barriers to employment due to societal norms.

·       Labor Force Participation: Only 53% (ages 15-59) participate in the workforce.

Socio-Demographic Challenges

1.      Marital Status:

·       Widowhood: 32% of elderly are widowed.

·       Gender disparity: 54% of elderly women are widowed compared to 16% of men.

·       Impact: Financial and security concerns are more prominent for elderly women.

2.      Living Arrangements:

·       Family dynamics: One-fifth of elderly live alone or only with a spouse.

·       Implication: Shifts in caregiving patterns, requiring new support systems.

3.      Economic Status:

·       Workforce participation: Nearly 50% of elderly men work, compared to 22% of women.

·       Rural elderly: Higher participation, predominantly in agriculture.

4.      Health Status:

·       Chronic morbidity: Over 30% of elderly women and 28% of men face chronic health issues.

·       Other health concerns: Nutritional deficiencies, disabilities, and functional restrictions.

5.      Mental Health:

·       Depression: Gender disparity in mental health, with older women more prone to depression.

·       Intervention need: Targeted mental health support for elderly women.

1.      Women Empowerment:

o   Strengthen financial independence and education for elderly women.

2.      Rural Healthcare Access:

o   Improve healthcare infrastructure and accessibility in rural areas for elderly care.

3.      Caregiver Support Programs:

o   Initiatives to aid caregivers, particularly in rural regions.

4.      Multi-Sectoral Collaboration:

o   Collaborate across healthcare, social services, and community organizations for holistic elderly care.

5.      Skill Development for Elderly:

o   Introduce programs to engage the elderly in skill development and active societal participation.

6.      Strengthening Social Support:

o   Develop community networks for emotional and practical support for the aging population.

Conclusion: 

·       The aging population in India requires an integrated, multi-sectoral approach to address financial, health, and social challenges. Empowering elderly women, improving healthcare access, and fostering community support are essential for ensuring dignity and care for India’s aging demographic.

·        Types: Range from hamlets to metropolitan cities; rural settlements focus on agriculture (primary activities), urban settlements on manufacturing and services (secondary, tertiary activities).

Rural Settlements

·        Key Differences: Rural settlements depend on land-based primary economic activities; urban settlements depend on manufacturing and services.

·        Functional Relationship: Rural and urban areas are connected by transport and communication networks.

Types of Rural Settlements

1.      Clustered Settlements:

·       Compact, densely built-up areas, often for security reasons.

·       Found- fertile plains (e.g., Bundelkhand, Nagaland, Rajasthan).

2.      Semi-Clustered Settlements:

·       Fragmented or segregated due to social factors.

·       Found- Gujarat plains and parts of Rajasthan.

3.      Hamleted Settlements:

·       Fragmented into small units (e.g., panna, para, dhani).

·       Common – Ganga plain, Chhattisgarh, and lower Himalayan valleys.

4.      Dispersed Settlements:

·       Isolated huts in remote areas, found in Meghalaya, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala.

Evolution of Towns in India

1.      Ancient Towns:

·       Over 2000 years old; cultural/religious centers.

·       E.g., Varanasi, Prayag, Patna, Madurai.

2.      Medieval Towns:

·       Originated as fort towns or princely state capitals.

·       E.g., Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra.

3.      Modern Towns:

·       Developed by British and other Europeans.

·       Coastal trading ports (e.g., Surat, Goa), and industrial centers (e.g., Jamshedpur).

·       Post-independence administrative and industrial towns (e.g., Chandigarh, Bhubaneswar, Gandhinagar).

Urbanization Trends

·        Administrative Centers: E.g., Dispur, Gandhinagar.

·        Industrial Growth: Post-1850, with cities -Bhilai, Durgapur, Barauni.

·        Satellite Towns: E.g., Gurgaon, Ghaziabad, Rohtak near Delhi.

·        Projected Urban Growth in India: 416 million urban dwellers by 2050.

·        2011 Census: India’s urbanization level at 31.1%.

State-wise Scenario

·        Urban Population Distribution: 75% of India’s urban population in 10 states (e.g., Maharashtra, UP, Tamil Nadu).

·        Maharashtra: 50.8 million urban dwellers (13.5% of total urban population).

·        Goa: Most urbanized state (62.2%).

·        Mizoram: Most urbanized in the North-East (51.5%).

·        Union Territories: Delhi (97.5%) and Chandigarh (97.25%) most urbanized.

Global Commitments and Initiatives

·        Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 11): Promotes sustainable urban planning.

·        UN-Habitat’s New Urban Agenda (2016): Guidelines for urban development.

·        Paris Agreement: India’s commitment to reducing emissions intensity by 33-35% by 2030.

Way Forward

·        Sustainable Urbanization: Efficient urban growth management, especially in low/middle-income countries.

·        Healthcare and Welfare Access: Improve welfare distribution in slums and accelerate health services.

·        New Approaches: Adopt bottom-up planning and governance for inclusive, robust urban development.

1.      Smart Cities Mission.

2.      AMRUT Mission.

3.      Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban.

4.      HRIDAY.

5.      Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Urban.

Support for Urban Poor:

·        Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana.

·        Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan.

Benefits of Urban Living

·        Access to Facilities: Improved literacy, education, health, life expectancy, and political participation.

·        Access to Information: Easier communication of health information, family planning.

·        Individualism: Urban diversity fosters self-reliance and decision-making autonomy.

Challenges of Urbanization

·        Population Pressure: Migration overloads urban utilities, creating slums, crime, unemployment, poverty, and pollution.

·        Overflowing Slums: 13.7 million slum households (65.49 million people), 65% of cities have slums.

·        Inadequate Housing: Over 50% of urban households live in single rooms, 4.4 persons per room.

·        Unplanned Development: Leads to inequality between rich and poor.

·        Pandemic Impact: COVID-19 worsened the plight of urban poor and slum dwellers.

·        Non-Inclusive Schemes: Welfare schemes often miss intended beneficiaries in slums.