Explanation:

(a) Pearl millet

• Also known as Bajra.
• It is a drought-resistant crop.
• Grown mainly in arid and semi-arid regions like Rajasthan, Haryana, and parts of Gujarat.
• Requires low rainfall (around 300–500 mm).
• Has a short growing season and strong adaptability to poor soils.
• Hence, it is water-efficient.

(b) Red gram (Pigeon pea)

• A deep-rooted pulse crop.
• Can withstand dry conditions due to its strong root system.
• Mostly grown under rainfed conditions.
• Requires moderate rainfall (~600–1000 mm) but does not demand continuous irrigation.
  Therefore, it is not highly water-intensive.

(c) Sunflower

• An oilseed crop.
• Has moderate water requirements.
• Tolerates short dry spells.
• Requires around 500–750 mm of water.
  Hence, it is relatively water-efficient compared to sugarcane.

(d) Sugarcane

• One of the most water-intensive crops grown in India.
• Requires about 1500–2500 mm of water throughout its long growing period (10–18 months).
• Needs continuous soil moisture for optimal sucrose formation.
• Grown extensively in states like Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and Karnataka where irrigation demand is high.
• Sugarcane cultivation is often criticized for contributing to groundwater depletion, especially in water-scarce regions.

Therefore, Sugarcane is the most water-intensive crop among the given options.

Explanation:

• Pair 1 – Correct: Milpa is the term used in Mexico and Central America.
• Pair 2 – Correct: Conuco refers to shifting cultivation in Venezuela.
• Pair 3 – Incorrect: Roca is used in Brazil, not Central Africa. In Central Africa, it is known as Masole.
• Pair 4 – Correct: Ladang is the term used in Indonesia

Shifting Cultivation (Slash and Burn Agriculture)

• A primitive subsistence farming practice.
• Farmers clear a patch of forest land and cultivate it.
• Crops grown mainly include cereals and food crops.
• After a few years, when soil fertility declines, farmers shift to a new patch.
• The old land is left fallow to naturally regain fertility.
• Soil fertility is restored through natural regeneration of vegetation.
• No use of fertilisers, HYV seeds, irrigation, or modern machinery.
• Land productivity is low.
• Practiced mainly in tribal and hilly forest regions.
• Also known as Slash and Burn Agriculture.

Explanation:

• Wheat is the second most important food crop of India after rice.
• It is a Rabi (winter) crop.
• Sowing: October–November
• Harvesting: March–April
• It is mainly grown in northern and north-western India and is a staple food for millions.

Temperature:

• Requires cool climate.
• Ideal temperature:
  • 10°C–15°C at sowing
  • 21°C–26°C at ripening/harvesting

Rainfall:

• Needs about 75 cm annual rainfall.
• 100 cm is the upper limit.
• Can also be grown with irrigation.
• Frost and hailstorms damage the crop.

Soil:

• Best suited to well-drained fertile loamy and clayey loamy soils.
• Plains are ideal for cultivation.

Major Producing States:

• Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra.
• U.P., Punjab and Haryana together produce over 66% of India’s wheat.

Explanation:

The terms Aus, Aman and Boro refer to seasonal varieties/cropping seasons of rice grown mainly in eastern India.

• Aus – Pre-monsoon rice, sown in April–May and harvested in September–October.
• Aman – Main Kharif rice crop, sown during monsoon (June–July) and harvested in November–December.
• Boro – Rabi/summer rice, grown in winter with irrigation and harvested in March–April.

These three rice crops are mainly cultivated in Assam, West Bengal and Odisha, where climatic conditions allow multiple rice crops in a year.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 – Incorrect: Maize is primarily a kharif crop, requiring a temperature range of 21°C to 27°C, not below 15°C. However, it is grown in the rabi season in some states like Bihar, but it is not mainly a rabi crop.
• Statement 2 – Correct: Maize is used both as food and fodder and grows well in old alluvial soils.
• Statement 3 – Correct: Major maize-producing states include Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana

Explanation:

Statement 1 – Correct:

• Rubber is originally an equatorial crop, suited to regions with consistently high temperatures and humidity throughout the year. It thrives in areas close to the equator where climatic conditions remain stable.

Statement 2 – Correct:

• Although equatorial in origin, rubber is also cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical regions under special agro-climatic conditions. It requires:
  • Annual rainfall above 200 cm
  • Temperature above 25°C
  • Moist and humid climate for optimal latex production

Additional Information

• Rubber is an important industrial raw material, used in the manufacture of tyres, tubes, footwear, medical equipment, belts, and industrial goods.
• It is obtained from the latex of the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis).
• The tree generally starts yielding latex after 6–8 years of plantation.
• In India, major rubber-producing states include:
  • Kerala (largest producer)
  • Tamil Nadu
  • Karnataka
  • Andaman & Nicobar Islands
  • Garo Hills of Meghalaya
• India is one of the leading producers and consumers of natural rubber globally.
• Well-drained, deep loamy soils are ideal for rubber cultivation.

Explanation:

Beej Amrut is a low-cost organic seed treatment formulation used in natural farming.

• Statement 1 – Correct: Cow dung is a primary ingredient, providing beneficial microorganisms.
• Statement 2 – Correct: Cow urine is added for its antimicrobial properties and nutrient content.
• Statement 3 – Correct: Forest soil supplies native microbial diversity essential for soil health.
• Statement 4 – Correct: Limestone is sometimes supplemented to balance pH and enhance effectiveness.

Explanation:

• Agaricus – Incorrect: Agaricus is a mushroom genus; many species are edible but it is not used as a biofertilizer.
• Spirogyra – Incorrect: Spirogyra is a filamentous green alga commonly found in ponds and ditches (often called pond scum). It is not generally used as a biofertilizer.
• Nostoc – Correct: Nostoc is a cyanobacterium that fixes atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, enriching soil fertility. It can survive desiccation and resume nitrogen fixation upon rehydration. Hence, it is used as a biofertilizer.

Explanation:

Statement I is correct

• Precision farming follows the principle of site-specific crop management. Instead of treating the entire farm as a single uniform unit, it recognizes that soil fertility, moisture content, pest incidence, and nutrient status vary within different parts of the same field.

By applying inputs only where needed and in the required quantity, it:

• Reduces overuse of fertilizers and pesticides
• Minimizes water wastage
• Lowers cost of cultivation
• Prevents nutrient runoff and groundwater contamination
• Enhances crop yield and profitability

Thus, it significantly improves input-use efficiency.

Statement II is correct

Precision farming is technology-driven. It uses:

• GPS (Global Positioning System): To identify exact field locations.
• Remote Sensing: To monitor crop health, moisture stress, and nutrient deficiencies through satellite or drone imagery.
• GIS (Geographic Information Systems): To map and analyze spatial data across the field.
• Variable Rate Technology (VRT): To apply inputs in different quantities at different locations.

These technologies enable accurate data collection and decision-making.

How Statement II explains Statement I

• The technologies mentioned in Statement II generate spatial variability data, which is the foundation of precision farming.
• Because farmers can detect nutrient-deficient zones, moisture-stressed patches, or pest-infested areas, they can apply inputs precisely rather than uniformly.
• Therefore, the technological framework directly leads to improved input-use efficiency described in Statement I.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 – Correct: Major projects cover more than 10,000 ha CCA.
• Statement 2 – Correct: Medium projects cover 2,000–10,000 ha CCA.
• Statement 3 – Incorrect: Minor projects use both surface and groundwater, not only groundwater.

Additional Information :

• Minor irrigation: CCA ≤ 2,000 ha.
• Major & Medium projects: Mostly depend on surface water (dams, canals).
• India’s ultimate irrigation potential is estimated at about 139 million hectares, with significant contribution from minor irrigation schemes.
• Minor irrigation plays a key role in decentralized water management and supports small farmers.

Explanation:

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) was launched with the overarching vision of:

• Ensuring access to protective irrigation to all agricultural farms — “Har Khet Ko Paani”
• Promoting micro-irrigation and precision irrigation techniques — “Per Drop More Crop”
• Reducing water wastage
• Expanding cultivable area under assured irrigation
• Converging investments in irrigation at the field level

Key components of PMKSY include:

• Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP)
• Har Khet Ko Pani
• Per Drop More Crop
• Watershed Development

District Irrigation Plans (DIPs) form the foundation of planning and implementation under the scheme.

Explanation:

• Pair 1 – Incorrect: Basin irrigation is used for small levelled fields surrounded by earth bunds, not long parallel channels.
• Pair 2 – Correct: Furrow irrigation involves small parallel channels, and water flows under gravity between crop rows.
• Pair 3 – Correct: Border strip irrigation divides the field into strips or bays, also called border check irrigation.

Additional Information :

• Surface irrigation relies mainly on gravity flow.
• It is commonly used in canal-irrigated regions.
• Efficiency depends on field levelling, soil type, and slope.
• Furrow irrigation is suitable for row crops like sugarcane and maize.

Explanation:

All three are multipurpose river valley projects because they perform more than one function:

1. Bhakra Nangal Project

• Built on the Sutlej River
• Provides irrigation, hydroelectric power, and flood control
• Crucial for Green Revolution in Punjab & Haryana

2. Hirakud Dam

• Built on the Mahanadi River
• Provides flood control, irrigation, and power generation
• Protects the Mahanadi delta from floods

3. Tehri Dam

• Built on the Bhagirathi River
• Provides hydropower, irrigation, drinking water supply, and flood moderation

Explanation:

1. Drip Irrigation – Correct

• Water is delivered directly to the root zone through pipes and emitters.
• Highly water-efficient and minimizes evaporation and runoff losses.
• Ideal for water-scarce areas and horticultural crops.

2. Sprinkler Irrigation – Correct

• Water is sprayed like artificial rainfall.
• Suitable for sandy soils and uneven land.
• Uses controlled water application.

3. Flood Irrigation – Incorrect

• Traditional method where water flows freely over the entire field.
• High water loss due to seepage and evaporation.
• Not a precision or micro-irrigation technique.

Explanation:

Statement 1 – Correct

• Over-irrigation raises the water table when excess water accumulates in the soil.
• This leads to waterlogging, reducing oxygen supply to plant roots.
• In arid and semi-arid areas, evaporation leaves behind salts, causing soil salinity.
• This problem is seen in parts of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan.
• Salinized soils reduce crop productivity and may eventually become unfit for cultivation.

Statement 2 – Incorrect

• Canal irrigation does not always increase soil fertility.
• While canals provide assured water supply, excessive or poorly managed canal irrigation can cause:
  • Waterlogging
  • Salinization
  • Soil degradation
• In some regions, stagnant canal water may even increase alkalinity.
• Therefore, canal irrigation can improve productivity, but it does not automatically improve soil fertility.

Statement 3 – Correct

• Groundwater irrigation depends on tube wells and bore wells.
• If extraction exceeds natural recharge, the water table declines.
• This leads to:
  • Increased cost of pumping
  • Drying of wells
  • Long-term water scarcity
• Over-extraction is common in agriculturally intensive states like Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan.

Explanation:

• Fertigation is the application of fertilisers and nutrients through irrigation systems, especially drip and micro-sprinklers.
• It is a precise and controlled method based on:
  • Crop requirements
  • Growth stage
  • Soil condition
  • Season and canopy size
• Advantages of fertigation:
  • Simultaneous supply of water and fertiliser
  • 25–30% increase in yield
  • 25–30% saving in fertiliser
  • Uniform and accurate distribution
  • Flexibility to modify nutrient dosage
  • Saves time, labour and energy
  • Helps prevent clogging of drippers due to lower pH
  • Allows supply of both macro and micro nutrients

Explanation:

Statement 1 – Correct:

• A census is defined as an official and systematic enumeration of the population conducted at regular intervals.

Statement 2 – Incorrect:

• The first census in India was held in 1872. The first complete and synchronous census was conducted in 1881.

Statement 3 – Correct:

• Since 1881, India has conducted the census regularly every ten years, establishing the decennial census tradition.

Additional Information

• The Indian Census is the most comprehensive source of demographic, social, and economic data in the country.
• It plays a crucial role in planning, policy formulation, and allocation of resources.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 – Correct: World Population Day is observed annually on 11 July to highlight global population issues.
• Statement 2 – Correct: The theme mentioned — “Empowering young people to create the families they want in a fair and hopeful world.” — is correctly stated for the year referenced.
• World Population Day focuses on issues such as population growth, reproductive health, youth empowerment, and sustainable development

Explanation:

• Pair 1 – Correct: The 1951 Census introduced the first quality check through field re-checking to assess enumeration accuracy.
• Pair 2 – Incorrect: The use of ICR technology for full digitisation was introduced in Census 2001 and 2011, not in 1971. The 1971 Census is notable for systematic migration mapping.
• Pair 3 – Correct: The 1961 Census acted as a cultural repository with extensive studies on rural crafts, fairs, festivals, and ethnographic surveys.

Additional Information :

• Up to 1991, only about 45% of census data was digitised.
• 2001 & 2011 Censuses achieved 100% digitisation using ICR scanning technology.
• The Census Act, 1948 provides the legal framework for conducting Census in India.
• Census is conducted by the Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India, under the Ministry of Home Affairs.

Explanation:

• India is said to have a Demographic Dividend because a significant proportion of its population falls within the working-age group (generally 15–64 years). When the working-age population exceeds the dependent population (children below 15 and elderly above 64), the dependency ratio declines.
• This age structure creates a “demographic window of opportunity,” which can boost economic growth through increased labor force participation, higher savings, and greater human capital development.
• According to international standards, the working-age group is defined as 15–64 years. India’s demographic dividend phase is expected to peak around 2041, offering strong potential for economic expansion and global competitiveness.

Explanation:

Statement 1 – Correct

• The decade 1991–2001 recorded the highest absolute increase in population (about 182.32 million), which was the peak in terms of numerical addition.

Statement 2 – Correct

• The highest annual growth rate (2.22%) was recorded during 1971–1981, marking the peak of India’s population growth rate.

Statement 3 – Incorrect

• The annual growth rate did not increase continuously. It increased from 1951 to 1981, but after 1981 it started declining gradually (2.16% in 1991, 1.97% in 2001, and 1.64% in 2011).

Additional :

• India entered the high growth phase between 1961–1981.
• Post-1981, growth rate declined due to improved literacy, family planning, urbanization, and socio-economic development.
• Although growth rate declined, absolute population continued to rise due to population momentum.

Explanation:

As per Census 2011:

• The overall literacy rate of India was 73.0%, which is above 72%.
• Male literacy rate was 80.9%, while female literacy rate was 64.6%, showing a clear gender gap.
• Kerala retained the top position with a literacy rate of 94.0%, followed by Lakshadweep (91.8%) and Mizoram (91.3%).

Explanation:

• Hamleted settlements are rural settlements where a large village is fragmented into several smaller units that are physically separated from one another but share a common name. These smaller units are known by different regional names such as panna, para, palli, nagla and dhani in various parts of India.
• This segmentation is generally influenced by social and ethnic factors. Such settlements are more commonly found in the Middle and Lower Ganga Plains, Chhattisgarh, and the lower valleys of the Himalayas.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 – Correct: Physical features strongly influence settlement types. For example:
  • Fertile plains with water availability favour clustered settlements.
  • Hilly or rugged terrain often leads to dispersed settlements.
  • Scarcity of water influences spacing between houses.
• Statement 2 – Correct: Cultural and ethnic factors also shape settlement patterns.
  • Caste-based segregation may lead to hamleted or semi-clustered settlements.
  • Social organisation and religious practices influence village layout.
• Statement 3 – Correct: Security considerations historically encouraged nucleated settlements, especially in regions prone to raids or robberies, where people lived close together for protection.

Additional Information:

Rural settlements in India are broadly classified into:

• Clustered/Nucleated
• Semi-clustered/Fragmented
• Hamleted
• Dispersed/Isolated

Explanation:

• Dongaria – Odisha (Correct): The Dongaria Kondh tribe inhabits the Niyamgiri Hills of Odisha and was in news due to opposition to the POSCO mining project.
• Karbi – Assam (Correct): The Karbi tribe mainly resides in Karbi Anglong district of Assam and has been associated with demands for a separate state.
• Bonda – Odisha (Correct): The Bonda tribe is one of the most primitive tribal groups (PVTGs) in Odisha.
• Tamang and Limbu – Sikkim (Correct):
  The Tamang and Limbu communities of Sikkim have been included in the Scheduled Tribe (ST) category.

Additional Information:

• Tharu Tribe:
  • Inhabit the Terai region of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar.
  • Also found in Nepal.
  • Major ST population in Uttar Pradesh belongs to Tharus.
• PVTGs in Andaman & Nicobar Islands:
  • Great Andamanese
  • Jarawas
  • Onges
  • Shompens
  • North Sentinelese

Explanation:

According to Census 2011 population share:

• Uttar Pradesh – 16%
• Maharashtra – 9%
• Bihar – 9%
• West Bengal – 8%
• Andhra Pradesh – 7%

These are the top five most populous States.

• Gujarat has 5% share and is not among the top five.

Explanation:

Statement I is correct

As per Census 2011:

• Tamil Nadu – 98% increase
• Kerala – 77% increase
• Karnataka – 50% increase
• National average – 44%

All these states recorded growth above the national average (except Andhra Pradesh at 40%).

Statement II is correct

Southern states have:

• Higher socio-economic development
• Better education and infrastructure
• Expanding industrial and service sectors
• Demand for low-skilled labour

Local populations often move toward better-skilled jobs, creating labour shortages in low-skilled sectors, which are filled by migrants from other states.

How Statement II explains Statement I

• The stronger economic growth and labour demand in southern states act as pull factors, directly leading to higher migrant population growth.

Explanation:

Statement 1 is incorrect:

• Immigration means entering and settling in a country from another country. For example, Indians moving to the United States are immigrants to the United States.

Statement 2 is incorrect:

• Emigration means leaving one’s own country to settle in another country. The terms immigration and emigration are mainly used in the context of international migration.

Additional Information:

• A person leaving India to settle in Canada is an emigrant from India and an immigrant to Canada.
• These terms describe the same movement from two different perspectives — country of origin and country of destination.

Explanation:

Statement I is correct

As per PLFS 2020–21:

• Migration rate among males: 10.7%
• Migration rate among females: 47.9%

Thus, female migration rate was significantly higher than male migration at the all-India level.

Statement II is correct

• Among females, marriage accounted for approximately 86.8% of migration.
• Among males, employment or search for better employment (22.8%) was the major reason.

This clearly shows gender-specific migration patterns.

How Statement II explains Statement I

• The high female migration rate is largely due to marriage-related migration, which is socially structured and widespread across India.
• In contrast, male migration is mainly employment-driven and therefore relatively lower in proportion.
• Thus, Statement II directly explains the pattern described in Statement I.

Explanation:

Statement I is correct

The Northern Plains (e.g., Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal) and Kerala have high population densities because of:

• Flat and extensive alluvial plains
• Fertile soils suitable for intensive agriculture
• Adequate to abundant rainfall
• Developed irrigation and transport networks

These favourable physical and economic factors support dense settlements.

Statement II is correct

States like Arunachal Pradesh and other hilly or rugged regions often have:

• Mountainous or dissected terrain
• Harsh climatic conditions
• Shallow and less fertile soils
• Limited accessibility
• These factors restrict agriculture, infrastructure development, and urbanisation, leading to low population density (often below 250 persons per sq km).