Explanation:

• Statement 1 – Correct : Tropical evergreen forests grow in hot and humid climates with annual rainfall above 200 cm and mean annual temperature exceeding 22°C, which supports dense vegetation growth.
• Statement 2 – Incorrect: These forests do not shed leaves simultaneously. There is no definite leaf-fall season, which is why they remain green throughout the year.
• Statement 3 – Correct: In India, tropical evergreen forests are primarily found on the western slopes of the Western Ghats, hills of the northeastern region, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Forest structure is well stratified (shrubs, creepers, short trees, tall trees).
• Trees often reach heights of 60 metres or more.
• Important species include rosewood, mahogany, ebony and aini.

Explanation:

• Statement I is correct: Semi-evergreen forests occur in regions with relatively lower rainfall compared to tropical evergreen forests. They have a mix of evergreen and moist deciduous species, and the presence of climbers maintains their evergreen character. Typical species include white cedar, hollock, and kail.
• Statement II is correct: The British colonial administration exploited Indian forests for commercial purposes such as timber for railways, construction, and plantations like tea, coffee, and rubber, leading to significant changes in forest structure.
• However, Statement II does not explain Statement I, because the ecological characteristics of semi-evergreen forests are determined by climatic conditions, not by colonial forest policies.

Explanation:

• Row I – Correct: Tropical moist deciduous forests are found in the Northeast, Himalayan foothills and eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, with species like teak, sal, shisham and mahua.
• Row II – Correct: Tropical dry deciduous forests dominate large parts of Peninsular India and the northern plains, especially Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, with trees such as tendu, amaltas, bel and khair.
• Row III – Correct: Tropical thorn forests occur in arid and semi-arid regions of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat, characterised by babool, neem and khejri.

Explanation:

Statement 1: Correct

• Tropical Deciduous Forests are the most widespread forests in India. Because their distribution and characteristics are closely linked with the seasonal monsoon rainfall, they are commonly referred to as monsoon forests.

Statement 2: Correct: These forests are found in regions receiving annual rainfall between 70 cm and 200 cm.

• Based on water availability, they are further divided into:
  • Moist Deciduous Forests → 100–200 cm rainfall
  • Dry Deciduous Forests → 70–100 cm rainfall
• This rainfall range makes them transitional forests between evergreen forests and thorn forests.

Statement 3: Incorrect: Moist deciduous forests do not occur in arid or semi-arid regions.

They are found in high rainfall areas, such as:

• Northeastern states
• Foothills of the Himalayas
• Eastern slopes of the Western Ghats
• Parts of Odisha
• Arid and semi-arid regions mainly support tropical thorn forests, not moist deciduous forests.

Statement 4: Correct: Teak and Sal are among the most dominant and economically valuable species of tropical deciduous forests.

• Other important species include shisham, mahua, amla, semul, kusum, and sandalwood, which support timber, medicine, and forest-based livelihoods.

Explanation:

• Tropical thorn forests are typical of semi-arid regions such as Rajasthan, Gujarat, south-west Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Kerala receives heavy rainfall and does not support this vegetation type.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct: Red Sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus) is an endemic species confined to a specific tract of the Eastern Ghats, largely in Andhra Pradesh.
• Statement 2 is incorrect: Red Sanders does not grow in tropical rainforests. It prefers rocky, degraded lands with red soil under hot and dry climatic conditions, not humid, high-rainfall areas.
• Red Sanders is listed under CITES Appendix II due to illegal trade.
• It is valued for its medicinal properties, dye, and musical instruments.
• The species is ecologically significant but highly vulnerable due to smuggling and habitat loss.

Explanation:

• Statement I is correct: The Himalayan ranges exhibit a vertical zonation of vegetation—from deciduous forests in the foothills, temperate forests at middle altitudes, coniferous forests higher up, followed by alpine pastures and tundra vegetation with mosses and lichens at extreme elevations.
• Statement II is correct: Increasing altitude leads to lower temperatures, while slope orientation affects rainfall distribution. Southern slopes receive higher precipitation, resulting in denser vegetation compared to the drier northern slopes.
• Statement II correctly explains Statement I, as climatic variations with altitude and aspect directly control the distribution of montane vegetation.

Explanation:

• Pair 1 – Correct: Sarpagandha is widely used in Ayurveda to treat hypertension (high blood pressure).
• Pair 2 – Incorrect: Neem is known for antibiotic and antibacterial properties, not specifically for asthma and ulcers.
• Pair 3 – Correct: Jamun seed powder is commonly used to control diabetes.
• Tulsi → cough and cold
• Arjun → heart ailments and blood pressure regulation
• Kachnar → digestive problems, asthma, ulcers

Explanation:

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands uniquely support all three forest types together, due to their equatorial location, high rainfall, and varied relief:

• Mangrove forests Found extensively along tidal creeks, estuaries, and coastal fringes, especially in Middle and North Andaman. Species like Rhizophora and Avicennia dominate.
• Tropical Evergreen forests These are the most widespread forests on the islands, supported by very high annual rainfall (over 300 cm) and consistently high humidity.
• Tropical Deciduous forests Present in areas with slightly lower rainfall or seasonal variation, often forming a transition zone between evergreen forests and coastal ecosystems.

Explanation:

• Nilgiri – 01.08.1986 (First Biosphere Reserve of India)
• Nanda Devi – 18.01.1988
• Nokrek – 01.09.1988
• Gulf of Mannar – 18.02.1989

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct: Campbell Bay National Park is situated on Great Nicobar Island, the southernmost island of India in the Andaman and Nicobar archipelago.
• Statement 2 is correct: It falls under the Nicobar biogeographic zone and consists mainly of tropical evergreen forests and mangrove forests, characteristic of island ecosystems.
• Statement 3 is correct: The park is known for endemic and rare species such as the Nicobar Megapode, Great Nicobar Crested Serpent Eagle, Crab-eating Macaque, and Giant Robber Crab.

Explanation:

All four National Parks are located in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, which fall under the “Islands” biogeographic zone as per the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) classification. Within this, they are specifically categorised under Islands—Nicobars region.

Let us examine each:

1. Mahatma Gandhi Marine (Wandoor) National Park
   • Located in South Andaman district.
   • Marine ecosystem: coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds.
   • Classified under Islands biogeographic zone.
2. Mount Harriet National Park
   • Located in South Andaman Island.
   • Evergreen and semi-evergreen forests.
   • Falls under Islands biogeographic region.
3. Rani Jhansi Marine National Park
   • Located in Ritchie’s Archipelago (Andaman Islands).
   • Marine park with coral reefs and island ecosystems.
   • Also under Islands biogeographic classification.
4. Saddle Peak National Park
   • Located in North Andaman Island.
   • Contains tropical evergreen forests and island biodiversity.
   • Falls under the same Islands biogeographic zone.

Explanation:

• Bhitarkanika National Park, located in Odisha, spans about 672 sq km and represents the second-largest mangrove ecosystem in India.
• Owing to its closeness to the Bay of Bengal, the region has saline soil conditions that favour the growth of mangroves and other vegetation typical of tropical intertidal environments.
• The park is widely known as a major breeding habitat for the endangered saltwater crocodile, making it an important ecological and tourist site.
• Gahirmatha Beach, forming the park’s eastern boundary, supports the world’s largest nesting colony of Olive Ridley sea turtles.
• Historically, it served as a hunting reserve of the Raj Kanika royal family, but today it is celebrated for its dense mangrove forests and rich wildlife diversity.
• The national park area (145 sq km) lies within the core of the larger sanctuary and is recognized for its exceptional ecological significance.
• The sanctuary is located in the estuarine region formed by the Brahmani and Baitarani rivers, with the Bay of Bengal to its east.
• Numerous rivers, creeks, backwaters, mudflats, and marshy tracts enhance its ecological richness, providing an ideal habitat for diverse flora and fauna.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct: Tsunamis are generally triggered by undersea earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides that suddenly displace large volumes of water, generating high-energy waves.
• Statement 2 is correct: Mangrove forests act as natural buffers by absorbing wave energy, reducing wind and wave intensity, and preventing coastal erosion through their dense root systems.
• Mangroves play a crucial role in disaster risk reduction, especially in cyclone- and tsunami-prone coastal areas.
• The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami highlighted the protective role of mangrove ecosystems in minimizing coastal damage.

Explanation:

• Pair 1 – Correct: Dampa Tiger Reserve is located in Mizoram and is known for rich biodiversity, including clouded leopards.
• Pair 2 – Correct: Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in Tripura and is home to elephants, sambar, buffalo, serow, and other species.
• Pair 3 – Incorrect: Saramati Peak is located in Nagaland, not Manipur. It lies near Thanamir village in Kiphire district and is the highest peak of Nagaland.

Statement 1 – Correct

Climatological hazards are associated with long-term atmospheric processes and climate variability. Examples include:

• Drought
• Extreme temperature events (heatwaves/cold waves)
• Wildfires
• Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs)
• Although GLOFs involve water, they are linked to long-term climatic changes such as glacier melting due to global warming, hence often grouped under climatological hazards in academic classification.

Statement 2 – Correct

Meteorological hazards are caused by short-term atmospheric processes (micro to meso scale). Examples include:

• Cyclones
• Thunderstorms
• Hailstorms
• Smog
• Extreme temperature (short duration)

Statement 3 – Incorrect

• Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions originate from the Earth’s interior, hence they are classified as Geophysical hazards, not hydrological hazards.

Geophysical Hazards include:

• Earthquake
• Tsunami
• Volcanic activity
• Mass movement (sometimes classified separately)

Hydrological Hazards include:

• Flood
• Landslide
• Wave action

Explanation:

• Statement I is correct: In the deep ocean, tsunami waves have long wavelengths and low wave height, making them barely noticeable to ships. However, near coastal areas, they become highly destructive.
• Statement II is correct: As a tsunami approaches shallow water, its wavelength shortens while the wave period remains constant. This results in a significant increase in wave height, sometimes reaching 15 meters or more.
• Statement II correctly explains Statement I, because the increase in wave height in shallow water is the primary reason for large-scale coastal devastation.

Explanation:

Landslides occur when the shear stress acting along a slope exceeds the resisting forces (friction and cohesion) of soil or rock. The following factors disturb this balance:

1. Heavy Rainfall

• It is the most important natural trigger of landslides.
• Rainwater infiltrates into soil and rock layers, increasing pore water pressure.
• This reduces friction and binding between particles.
• In the Himalayas, intense monsoon rainfall often triggers debris flows and mudslides.

2. Deforestation

• Tree roots bind soil particles and provide mechanical strength to slopes.
• Removal of vegetation reduces slope stability.
• Rainwater flows unchecked on barren slopes, increasing erosion and slope failure.
• Common in fragile mountain ecosystems like the Himalayas and Western Ghats.

3. Earthquakes

• Seismic tremors shake and loosen rock masses.
• They reduce internal cohesion and may cause immediate slope collapse.
• Earthquakes in tectonically active zones like the Himalayas frequently trigger landslides.

4. Road Construction and Blasting

• Cutting slopes for highways disturbs natural rock structure.
• Blasting creates fractures and weakens rock layers.
• Alteration of slope angle increases gravitational force acting downslope.
• Seen in hilly states such as Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.

5. Shifting Agriculture (Jhum Cultivation)

• Practiced widely in North-East India.
• Clearing vegetation and burning reduces soil binding.
• Repeated disturbance prevents regeneration of stabilizing vegetation cover.
• Leads to frequent slope instability.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 – Correct The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) was established under the Disaster Management Act, 2005 (formally constituted on 23 December 2005). It is the apex statutory body for disaster management in India.
• Statement 2 – Correct The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is a specialized response force created in 2006. It functions under the overall supervision of NDMA and handles disaster response operations.
• Statement 3 – Incorrect The State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) is headed by the Chief Minister of the respective state, not the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister heads the NDMA.
• NDMA Chairperson → Prime Minister
• SDMA Chairperson → Chief Minister
• NDRF → Specialized response force (2006)

Explanation:

• Hydrological Drought occurs when water levels in rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and aquifers fall below normal levels.
• It reflects a deficit in water storage systems, often following prolonged periods of low rainfall.
• Unlike meteorological drought, which refers only to reduced precipitation, hydrological drought concerns actual water availability in storage bodies.
• It may take longer to develop and recover because groundwater and reservoirs require sustained precipitation to recharge.
• Meteorological Drought – Defined solely by below-normal rainfall.
• Agricultural Drought – Occurs when soil moisture is insufficient for crops.
• Ecological Drought – Refers to impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity due to prolonged dryness.

Explanation

Establishment of National Parks & Wildlife Sanctuaries – 1935

• The concept of protected areas began during British rule.
• The first National Park (Hailey National Park, now Jim Corbett National Park) was established in 1936 under the Government of India Act framework (often referred to as 1935 in policy evolution context).
• This marked the beginning of area-based conservation in India.
• Focus: Protect habitats from hunting and deforestation.

Wildlife Protection Act – 1972

• Enacted after the Stockholm Conference (1972).
• Provided a comprehensive legal framework for wildlife protection.
• Banned hunting of endangered species.
• Created schedules for species protection.
• Strengthened the legal basis for National Parks and Sanctuaries.

Project Tiger – 1973

• Launched soon after the Wildlife Protection Act.
• Aim: Protect the rapidly declining tiger population.
• Adopted a core-buffer strategy.
• Marked the beginning of species-specific conservation programmes.

Project Elephant – 1992

• Launched to protect elephants and their migratory corridors.
• Addressed human-elephant conflict.
• Came much later as conservation focus expanded.

Explanation:

• SAFAR (System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting and Research) is developed by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune. It provides real-time AQI and location-specific advisories for major metropolitan cities. IMD provides operational air quality information, while CPCB and MoEF&CC are regulatory and policy bodies.

Explanation:

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are entirely human-made greenhouse gases primarily used in cooling and related industries. Global HFC use is distributed across six major sectors:

• Air conditioning & refrigeration – This accounts for the largest share of HFC consumption globally, as these gases are widely used as refrigerants.
• Mobile air conditioning – Used in vehicles such as cars, buses, and trucks.
• Foam agents – Utilised in insulating foams for buildings and appliances.
• Unitary air conditioning – Refers to packaged or split AC systems commonly used in residential and commercial spaces.
• Fire extinguishers & solvents – Used in specialised fire suppression systems and certain cleaning applications.
• Aerosols – Used as propellants in spray products.

Explanation:

Statement 1 is correct:

• Primary pollutants such as sulphur dioxide, nitric oxide, smoke, and dust are directly released into the air. Secondary pollutants like ozone, nitrogen dioxide, PAN, and sulphur trioxide are formed by chemical reactions among primary pollutants.

Statement 2 is correct:

• PM10 and PM2.5 are fine particulate matters suspended in air. These particles can enter the respiratory system and cause serious health problems, including lung and heart diseases.

Additional Information:

• Air pollutants are broadly classified into primary and secondary pollutants.
• They are also categorized as gaseous pollutants (SO₂, NO₂, CO, O₃) and particulate pollutants (dust, smoke, fine particles).
• PM2.5 is more harmful than PM10 due to its smaller size and deeper penetration into the lungs.

Explanation:

• Nitrate concentration beyond the permissible limit of 45 mg/l in drinking water can cause methemoglobinemia, commonly known as Blue Baby Syndrome.
• This condition reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood, particularly affecting infants. It results in bluish discoloration of the skin due to insufficient oxygen supply.
• Fluorosis → caused by excess fluoride
• Goitre → caused by iodine deficiency
• Minamata disease → caused by mercury poisoning
• Thus, excess nitrate contamination in drinking water is directly linked to Blue Baby Syndrome.

Explanation:

Water pollutants are broadly classified into six major categories:

1. Organic pollutants – Include biodegradable wastes (sewage, food processing waste) and non-biodegradable substances like plastics, synthetic fibers, solvents, VOCs and oil. They reduce dissolved oxygen (DO) in water bodies.
2. Inorganic pollutants – Include metals, salts, minerals, nutrients, and dissolved solids. They alter water chemistry and quality.
3. Suspended solids and sediments – Clay, silt and sand particles mainly from soil erosion. They increase turbidity and reduce light penetration.
4. Pathogens – Disease-causing microorganisms (bacteria, viruses) entering through sewage and slaughterhouse waste. They cause water-borne diseases like cholera and typhoid.
5. Thermal pollutants – Discharge of hot water from power plants and industries. They raise water temperature and reduce dissolved oxygen levels.
6. Radioactive pollutants – Released from medical, agricultural and nuclear industries. Many are carcinogenic in nature.

Explanation:

• Plastic pollution has emerged as one of the most pressing environmental challenges globally. Everyday activities such as using plastic bottles or disposing of plastic wrappers contribute to the accumulation of plastic waste in rivers, oceans, soil, air, and even the human body in the form of microplastics. Over time, plastic has infiltrated nearly every ecosystem on Earth.
• World Environment Day, observed annually on June 5 and led by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) since 1973, serves as the largest global platform for environmental awareness and action. In 2025, the Republic of Korea is hosting the celebrations, with a special focus on ending plastic pollution.
• Under UNEP’s global campaign #BeatPlasticPollution, individuals, communities, industries, and governments are encouraged to adopt the 5R approach, which includes:

1. Refuse – Avoid unnecessary plastic products, especially single-use plastics.
2. Reduce – Minimise overall plastic consumption in daily life.
3. Reuse – Use plastic items multiple times instead of discarding them after a single use.
4. Recycle – Ensure proper segregation and recycling of plastic waste.
5. Rethink – Change consumption patterns and shift towards sustainable alternatives.

Explanation:

In May 2019, the Agriculture Department of Kerala banned several highly toxic pesticides to promote organic farming. The banned pesticides included:

• Carbofuran
• Phorate
• Methyl Parathion
• Monocrotophos
• Methyl demethon
• Prophenophos
• Triazophos
• All the pesticides listed in the question were part of the ban. These chemicals are known for their high toxicity and adverse environmental and health impacts.
• The Kerala Agricultural University was asked to suggest safer alternatives, and it recommended comparatively less hazardous pesticides such as acephate, carbaryl, dimethoate and flubendiamide.

Explanation:

• Statement 1: India first implemented the BS norms in 2000. Incorrect. Although emission norms equivalent to Euro I (India 2000 norms) were introduced nationwide in 2000, the Bharat Stage framework had already begun earlier in select cities like Delhi in 1999. Hence, stating that BS norms were first implemented in 2000 is not fully accurate.
• Statement 2: The use of non-BS VI vehicles is banned all over India. Incorrect. BS-VI norms became mandatory for new vehicles sold from April 1, 2020, as notified by the Ministry of Road Transport & Highways. However, older BS-IV and BS-III vehicles are still legally allowed to operate, subject to vehicle age limits, local restrictions, and possession of a valid Pollution Under Control Certificate (PUCC). There is no nationwide blanket ban on non-BS VI vehicles.
• Statement 3: The sulphur content under BS-IV is maximum permissible at 80 ppm. Incorrect. Under BS-IV norms, the maximum sulphur content permitted in fuel was 50 ppm, not 80 ppm.

For comparison:

• BS-III → 350 ppm (diesel)
• BS-IV → 50 ppm
• BS-VI → 10 ppm

Sulphur reduction and emission standards are monitored in coordination with agencies like the Central Pollution Control Board.

Explanation:

• Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), more accurately called Biochemical Oxygen Demand, measures the amount of dissolved oxygen required by microorganisms to decompose organic matter in water over a specific period (usually 5 days at 20°C).
• High BOD → Indicates high organic pollution
• Low BOD → Indicates clean water
• Thus, BOD is widely used as a standard indicator of water pollution in rivers, lakes, and wastewater systems.