Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct: The Greater Himalayas or Himadri form the northernmost and most continuous range of the Himalayas. They contain the highest peaks such as Mount Everest, Kanchenjunga, and Nanga Parbat, and are snow-bound with many glaciers.
• Statement 2 is correct: The Lesser Himalayas or Himachal range lies south of the Himadri and includes important ranges like Pir Panjal and Dhauladhar. This region hosts famous hill stations such as Shimla, Mussoorie, and Darjeeling, along with fertile valleys like Kashmir and Kullu.
• Statement 3 is incorrect: The Outer Himalayas or Shiwaliks are the lowest and outermost range of the Himalayas. They have relatively low elevations and do not contain major glaciers; instead, they are characterized by low hills and intermontane valleys called Duns.

Explanation:

• Statement I – Correct – The Trans-Himalayan region lies north of the Greater Himalayas and runs parallel to them.
• It includes the Zaskar Range and Ladakh Range, with the Indus River flowing between these two ranges.
• Statement II – Correct – The Karakoram Range lies in the extreme northern part of India and hosts K2 (Mount Godwin-Austen), which is the second-highest peak in the world after Mount Everest.

Explanation:

• The Purvanchal, also known as the Eastern Hills, represent the southward extension of the Himalayas beyond the Dihang Gorge.
• This physiographic division is made up of four major hill ranges:
  • Patkai Hills
  • Naga Hills
  • Manipur Hills
  • Mizo Hills
• These hills run through India’s north-eastern states and are mostly composed of sedimentary rocks, especially sandstones.
• The Purvanchal hills are densely forested, seismically active, and form a natural boundary between India and Myanmar.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct: The passage clearly states that Majuli is situated midstream of the Brahmaputra River in Assam, making it a river island.
• Statement 2 is correct: Majuli is described as a fluvial landform (riverine delta) formed by the dynamic deposition processes of the Brahmaputra river system, especially where numerous tributaries drain out and form deltas.
• Statement 3 is correct: The island is bounded by the Subansiri River and its tributaries on the northwest and by the main Brahmaputra River on the south and southwest, as mentioned in the description.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct: The Peninsular Plateau consists of old crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks, making it one of the oldest landforms.
• Statement 2 is correct: It was formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land.
• Statement 3 is incorrect: The plateau has broad, shallow valleys and rounded hills, not sharp peaks or deep gorges.2

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct: The Central Highlands lie north of the Narmada River, covering much of the Malwa Plateau.
• Statement 2 is correct: Rivers such as Chambal, Sind, Betwa and Ken flow from southwest to northeast, indicating the slope.
• Statement 3 is incorrect: The Central Highlands are wider in the west and narrower in the east, not the reverse.

Explanation:

• Statement I – Correct – The Western Ghats lie parallel to the western coast, are continuous, and are higher than the Eastern Ghats, with an average elevation of 900–1600 metres. They can be crossed mainly through passes like Thal, Bhor, and Pal Ghats.
• Statement II – Incorrect – The Eastern Ghats are discontinuous and irregular, heavily dissected by rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal.
• Moreover, orographic rainfall is caused by the Western Ghats, not the Eastern Ghats, as they intercept the southwest monsoon winds.

Explanation:

• Anai Mudi lies in the Western Ghats ✔
• Doda Betta is also part of the Western Ghats, not Eastern Ghats ✘
• Mahendragiri is the highest peak of the Eastern Ghats ✔

Explanation:

• Rain Shadow Effect of the Aravalli Range: The Aravalli Mountains run in a southwest–northeast direction, parallel to the southwest monsoon winds. As a result, they fail to obstruct the moisture-laden winds effectively, leading to very low rainfall in the Thar region.
• Proximity to the Tropic of Cancer: The Thar Desert lies close to the Tropic of Cancer, causing high temperatures, low humidity, and high evaporation rates, which intensify arid conditions.
• Atmospheric Circulation: The dominance of dry northeast trade winds and westerlies brings dry air masses, limiting moisture availability and reinforcing desert climate characteristics.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct: The western coastal plain is sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea.
• Statement 2 is incorrect: The western coastal plain is described as a narrow plain, not broader.
• Statement 3 is correct: The western coast is divided into Konkan (Mumbai–Goa), Kannad Plain (central stretch), and Malabar Coast (southern stretch).

Explanation:

• Holistic Interaction: Soil is not a static component but a dynamic product of the combined and reciprocal influence of five fundamental factors.
• Active Factors: Climate and Organisms are considered active factors as they provide the energy and chemical catalysts (moisture, heat, and acids) that drive the weathering process and nutrient cycling.
• Passive Factors: Parent Material and Topography are passive agents that provide the physical framework and location for soil development.
• The Element of Time: Time acts as the ultimate variable; it determines the maturity and the degree of profile development (horizons) within the soil.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct: Coral polyps thrive in shallow, warm, and mud-free waters, as stated in the passage.
• Statement 2 is correct: Coral polyps secrete calcium carbonate, and accumulation of these skeletons leads to the formation of coral reefs.
• Statement 3 is correct: Atolls are circular or horse-shoe shaped reefs, which is explicitly mentioned.Top of Form

Bottom of Form

Explanation:

• Statement I is correct: Alluvial soils are deposited by the Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra systems.
• Statement II is incorrect: Alluvial soils are also found in the eastern coastal plains, especially in the deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri.

Explanation:

• Statement I is correct: Bangar is old alluvium with more kankar (calcareous) nodules.
• Statement II is incorrect: Khadar has finer particles and is more fertile than Bangar.

Explanation:

• Statement I – Correct : Black (Regur) soil is derived from the weathering of basaltic lava of the Deccan Trap, which was formed due to extensive volcanic activity in the past.
• This explains its dark colour, fine texture, and mineral richness.
• Statement II – Incorrect : Black soil is not sandy. It is extremely fine and clayey, which gives it a high water-holding capacity.
• This property makes it especially suitable for rain-fed crops like cotton, even in regions with uncertain rainfall.

Explanation:

• Statement I – Correct : Black soil can retain moisture for a long time, which supports the long growing period of cotton.
• Hence, it is also known as black cotton soil.
• Statement II – Incorrect : Black soil is:
  • Rich in: calcium carbonate, lime, magnesium, potash
  • Poor in: phosphoric content

Explanation:

• Red and Yellow soils originate from weathering of igneous (granite) and metamorphic (gneiss) rocks, mainly in low rainfall areas of the eastern and southern Deccan Plateau.

Explanation:

• The reddish colour is caused by iron diffusion in the parent crystalline and metamorphic rocks. When iron is hydrated, the soil appears yellow.

Explanation:

• Laterite Soil Characteristics: Laterite soils are the result of intense leaching (removal of silica and lime) due to high tropical rainfall and high temperature. While they are generally poor in organic matter, nitrogen, and phosphate, they respond well to manuring and specialized irrigation.
• Cashew – Correct: Red laterite soils in coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala are particularly famous for plantation crops like cashew nuts.
• Tea – Correct: Tea plantations are often established on the hill slopes of the Western Ghats and North-Eastern regions where laterite soils are prevalent. These soils provide the necessary drainage for the crop.
• Wheat – Incorrect: Wheat is a temperate crop that requires fertile, moisture-retentive Alluvial or Black soils. The highly leached, acidic, and low-fertility nature of laterite soil makes it unsuitable for wheat cultivation.
• Rubber – Correct: Laterite soils found in the heavy rainfall belts of Kerala and Karnataka are highly conducive to rubber plantations, provided they are managed with appropriate fertilizers.

Explanation:

• Formation Environment: Peaty and marshy soils are characteristic of regions experiencing heavy rainfall and high humidity. These conditions are typically found in coastal areas of Kerala, Odisha, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu.
• Organic Accumulation: High moisture and humidity lead to the accumulation of large quantities of dead organic matter, which results in a soil profile rich in humus and organic content.
• Vegetation and Chemistry: These soils often support dense vegetation growth. Chemically, while they are rich in organic matter, they may exhibit alkalinity in certain locations due to the presence of salts.

Explanation:

• Mahanadi – Correct
  • Flows eastwards and drains into the Bay of Bengal.
• Godavari – Correct
  • East-flowing peninsular river forming a delta in the Bay of Bengal.
• Narmada – Incorrect
  • A west-flowing river draining into the Arabian Sea.
• Krishna – Correct
  • Flows eastwards and drains into the Bay of Bengal.

Explanation:

• Right-bank tributaries of the Krishna include Ghatprabha, Malprabha, and Tungabhadra.
• Bhima, Musi, and Munneru are left-bank tributaries.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 – Correct
  • Peninsular rivers are rain-fed and have maximum discharge during the monsoon season.
• Statement 2 – Correct
  • These rivers are characterised by broad and shallow valleys.
• Statement 3 – Incorrect
  • Peninsular rivers have reached a mature stage, and vertical down-cutting is negligible.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct: The Cauvery originates at Talakaveri (1,341 m) in the Brahmagiri range, Kodagu district of Karnataka.
• Statement 2 is incorrect: The basin is bounded by the Eastern Ghats on the east and the south, not only on the eastern side.

Explanation:

• The Krishna River rises from the Western Ghats near Jor village in Satara district of Maharashtra.
• The altitude of origin is about 1,337 metres above sea level.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct: Tamil Nadu part of the basin depends largely on the retreating North-East Monsoon.
• Statement 2 is incorrect: Due to rainfall from both monsoons in different parts of the basin, the Cauvery is almost perennial with fewer fluctuations.

Explanation:

• Statement 1 – Correct
  • The Pennar basin lies in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
• Statement 2 – Correct
  • The Erramala range forms the northern boundary of the basin.
• Statement 3 – Correct
  • The Seshachalam hills lie south of the Pennar River.

Pennar River (Uttara Pinakini)

• One of the major east-flowing rivers of Peninsular India
• Source: Chenna Kesava Hill of the Nandidurg range, Chikkaballapura district, Karnataka
• Flow direction: Eastward
• Mouth: Bay of Bengal
• Total length: 597 km
• Drainage basin states: Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
• Basin shape: Fan-shaped

Physiographic boundaries of Pennar Basin

• North: Erramala Range
• East: Nallamala and Velikonda ranges (Eastern Ghats)
• South: Nandidurg hills
• West: Narrow ridge separating it from Vedavati valley of Krishna basin
• Southern hill ranges within basin:
  • Seshachalam Range (famous for Red Sanders)
  • Paliconda Range

Explanation:

• Statement 1 – Correct
  • The Subarnarekha originates from the Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand.
• Statement 2 – Correct
  • It drains into the Bay of Bengal forming an estuary between the Ganga and Mahanadi deltas.
• Statement 3 – Incorrect
  • The river flows through Jharkhand, West Bengal and Odisha, not only Odisha.

Subarnarekha River

• Source: Ranchi Plateau, Jharkhand
• Flow direction: Eastward
• Forms the boundary between West Bengal and Odisha in its lower course
• Mouth: Bay of Bengal
• Forms an estuary between the Ganga delta (north) and Mahanadi delta (south)
• Important river of eastern India

Explanation:

• West-flowing rivers of Peninsular India are shorter in length and fewer in number compared to east-flowing rivers like the Godavari and Krishna.

Explanation:

• Narmada and Tapi are the two major west-flowing rivers, draining into the Arabian Sea.