APPSC Daily Current Affairs - 9th December 2025
Source: Deccan Chronicle
Relevance:
GS3: Road safety, public health, accident prevention, internal security issues
GS4: Ethics of public safety, responsibility of citizens
Why in News?
The Tirupati district police announced that from December 15, petrol will not be supplied to two-wheeler riders who are not wearing helmets. This step is part of a strict enforcement drive to reduce road fatalities.
Legal Basis: Motor Vehicles Act
- The rule is backed by Section 194(D) of the Motor Vehicles Act, which mandates penalties for riding without protective headgear.
- Wearing helmets is compulsory for both rider and pillion rider.
Background & Rationale
- National data indicates 45% of all road accident deaths involve two-wheeler riders.
- Major causes:
- Over speeding
- Riding without helmets
- 40% of deaths are preventable if both rider and pillion wear helmets properly.
Enforcement Mechanism in Tirupati
- From Dec 15, petrol pumps will refuse fuel to riders without helmets.
- Petrol pump owners have been instructed and trained on enforcement guidelines.
- SP Subba Rayudu emphasised providing ample time for public adaptation.
Awareness Campaigns
- Large-scale road safety awareness drives conducted in the district.
- Focus: behavioural change among youth and commuters.
- Public informed that strict action will follow after Dec 15.
Expected Impact
- Reduction in road accident deaths.
- Increased helmet compliance among riders and pillion riders.
- Promotion of responsible driving behaviour.
- Reduced long-term financial and emotional burden on families.
Challenges
- Public resistance or non-cooperation at fuel stations.
- Operational burden on petrol station workers.
- Ensuring consistency across all pumps.
- Possible conflicts during enforcement.
- Ensuring helmets used are ISI-certified and worn properly.
Way Forward
- Continued awareness drives beyond Dec 15.
- Integration with digital monitoring (CCTV, ANPR cameras).
- Collaboration with schools, colleges, and delivery companies.
- Subsidised helmets for low-income riders.
- Strict penalties for selling non-ISI helmets.
CARE MCQ
Q. With reference to the ‘No Helmet–No Petrol’ rule implemented in Tirupati, consider the following statements:
- The rule is legally backed by Section 194(D) of the Motor Vehicles Act.
- The rule applies only to riders and not pillion riders.
- Petrol pumps are required to deny fuel to helmetless two-wheeler riders.
- The initiative is aimed at reducing two-wheeler accident-related fatalities.
How many of the above statements are correct?
(a) One
(b) Two
(c) Three
(d) All four
Answer: C
Explanation
Statement 1 – Correct
- Section 194(D) provides penalties for riding without protective headgear. The rule is grounded in this provision.
Statement 2 – Incorrect
- Wearing helmets is compulsory for both rider and pillion rider as per police statement.
Statement 3 – Correct
- Petrol pumps have been instructed to deny fuel to those not wearing helmets.
Statement 4 – Correct
- The policy aims to reduce road accident deaths, especially among two-wheeler riders (>45% fatalities).
Source: Indian Express, The Hindu
Relevance: GS Paper 2: Governance, Regulatory Oversight, Role of DGCA GS Paper 3: Infrastructure, Aviation Sector, Crisis Management, Safety Regulations
Important Key Concepts for Prelims and Mains:
For Prelims:
- DGCA, Flight Duty Time Limitations (FDTL), Civil Aviation Requirements (CAR), FOI (Flight Operations Inspector), ICAO, weekly rest rule, night landing cap, duty hours, A320 crew requirements, ATF, Digi Yatra, UDAN, Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF)
For Mains:
- Aviation safety norms, fatigue management, regulatory oversight gaps, airline crisis management, manpower planning failures, governance of private carriers, too-big-to-fail dynamics, passenger protection, infrastructure constraints, ICAO compliance
Why in News?
India’s largest airline, IndiGo, plunged into a severe operational crisis, cancelling over 1,000 flights in a single day. The sudden shortage of pilots following the implementation of revised FDTL (Flight Duty Time Limitation) norms caused widespread cancellations, leaving thousands of passengers stranded.
Because IndiGo controls over 60% of India’s domestic market, its failure crippled the entire aviation ecosystem. Facing a potential national aviation collapse, the DGCA stepped in and granted temporary, selective exemptions to help stabilise operations.
Civil Aviation Minister K. Ram Mohan Naidu – Monday (December 8, 2025) said the government will curtail IndiGo’s winter flight schedule and allocate them to other operators following the airline’s recent large-scale operational disruptions.
Background: IndiGo’s operational meltdown
- IndiGo informed DGCA that disruption arose due to misjudgement and planning gaps in implementing Phase 2 of FDTL norms.
- The airline admitted that actual crew requirements exceeded estimates.
- Crew requirement under new rules:
- Captains needed: 2,422
- Available captains: 2,357
- First officers needed: 2,153
- Available: 2,194
- IndiGo operates:
- 400+ aircraft
- 2,300+ daily flights
- Heavy dependence on night operations (red-eye flights) and a highly stretched crew utilisation model.
- Competing airlines were less affected due to lower utilisation and spare pilots.
- IndiGo’s high-volume, high-frequency, tight-crew-rostering model collapsed immediately once the new FDTL restrictions kicked in.
What are the Flight Duty Time Limitation (FDTL) norms?
FDTL norms are mandatory aviation safety regulations issued by DGCA to determine how long pilots may operate and how much rest they must receive.
They regulate:
- Maximum duty hours
- Maximum flying hours
- Number of landings in a duty period
- Night duty limits
- Rest periods
- Fatigue reporting obligations
These norms are aligned with global aviation standards under ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization).
Revised FDTL rules: Major provisions
1. Weekly rest requirement
- Increased from 36 hours to 48 hours of uninterrupted rest.
- Ensures adequate fatigue recovery.
2. Night landings capped
- Pilots may perform only 2-night landings, reduced from 6 earlier.
- Important for safety during low-visibility operations.
3. Restriction on continuous night duties
- No more than two continuous night duties allowed in a week.
- Prevents chronic sleep deprivation.
4. Mandatory roster redesign
- Airlines must reorganise crew schedules to comply with new limits.
- Requires higher staffing levels.
5. Quarterly fatigue reporting
Airlines must submit fatigue risk reports to DGCA every quarter.
Strengthens oversight on fatigue management.
Objective of the new FDTL rules
- Reduce pilot fatigue—a leading cause of human error in aviation.
- Improve alertness, coordination, and operational safety.
- Ensure India meets international aviation safety benchmarks.
- Respond to safety concerns highlighted by increasing traffic volume and night operations.
About DGCA
DGCA, headquartered in New Delhi, is India’s apex civil aviation safety regulator.
Key functions
- Ensures airworthiness and flight safety.
- Regulates scheduled and non-scheduled air operations.
- Issues licenses to pilots, engineers, ATCs, and flight examiners.
- Conducts accident and incident investigations.
- Oversees aircraft noise and emission compliance (ICAO Annex 16).
- Updates Aircraft Rules and Civil Aviation Requirements (CARs).
- Supports implementation of new aviation laws such as the Bharatiya Vayuyan Adhiniyam 2024.
DGCA plays a central role in balancing safety requirements with operational feasibility.
Status of India’s aviation sector (2025)
Market position
- India is the 3rd-largest domestic aviation market after the US and China.
- Passenger traffic projected to reach 1.1 billion by 2040.
Economic contribution
- Sector supports 7.7 million jobs (direct + indirect).
- Contributes 1.5% to India’s GDP.
Fleet strength
- Indian fleet constitutes 2.4% of global aircraft fleet.
- Rapid fleet expansion due to rising demand.
Airport infrastructure
- Operational airports increased from 74 (2014) to 163 (2025).
- Target: 350–400 airports by 2047.
Greenfield & PPP development
- Strong focus on public–private partnerships (PPP).
- New Greenfield airports being built in metro and regional locations.
Evolution of civil aviation regulation in India
Air Corporations Act, 1953
- Nationalised nine airlines.
- Government monopoly until mid-1990s.
Open Sky Policy (1990–94)
- Allowed entry of private air taxi operators.
- Ended monopoly of Indian Airlines and Air India.
Bharatiya Vayuyan Adhiniyam, 2024
Replaces the Aircraft Act, 1934 and aims to:
- Align aviation regulations with ICAO norms and Chicago Convention.
- Modernise licensing and appeals processes.
- Promote Make in India in aviation manufacturing.
- Enable Atmanirbhar Bharat in aerospace.
Government Initiatives for the Aviation Sector in India
1. National Civil Aviation Policy (NCAP), 2016
NCAP 2016 is India’s first integrated aviation policy, aimed at creating a safe, secure, affordable, and sustainable aviation ecosystem.
Key Features
- Allows Indian airlines to operate international flights after meeting minimum domestic capacity requirements (5/20 rule replaced with 0/20 rule).
- Focuses on improving regional connectivity, promoting competition, and expanding India’s global aviation network.
- Encourages development of Greenfield and Brownfield airports under PPP mode.
- Sets goals for cargo logistics, MRO (Maintenance, Repair & Overhaul) services, and general aviation growth.
2. UDAN Scheme (Ude Desh ka Aam Nagrik)
Launched in 2016 under NCAP, UDAN aims to make flying accessible and affordable for common citizens.
Key Features
- Improves regional air connectivity by reviving unserved and underserved airports.
- Airfares capped for short-distance flights to ensure affordability.
- Uses Viability Gap Funding (VGF) to support airlines operating unprofitable routes.
- Focuses on Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities (e.g., Jharsuguda, Hubballi, Jabalpur).
3. DigiYatra
A digital initiative to transform Indian airports into biometric-enabled smart terminals.
Key Features
- Provides contactless, paperless passenger processing using facial recognition.
- Seamless movement at entry gates, security checkpoints, and boarding gates.
- Secures passenger identity through encryption and decentralised data storage (no central database).
4. Open Sky Policy
This policy opens Indian skies to private and foreign participation for airport operations and international routes.
Key Features
- Promotes private sector involvement in airport development and management.
- Large airports like Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru operate under PPP mode.
- Allows foreign airlines to operate flights based on bilateral agreements.
5. GAGAN Navigation System
GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) is India’s Satellite-Based Augmentation System (SBAS).
Developed by
ISRO + Airports Authority of India (AAI)
Key Features
- Enhances accuracy and reliability of GPS signals.
- Improves approach and landing safety, especially for non-instrumented airports.
- Supports aircraft navigation over hilly, coastal, and remote terrain.
6. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and Tax Liberalisation Measures
Key Provisions
- 100% FDI allowed under the automatic route for Greenfield airports.
- 74% FDI allowed for Brownfield airports.
- Tax incentives for MRO services to reduce foreign dependency.
- Promotes leasing and financing hubs in India to reduce cost burdens.
7. Public–Private Partnership (PPP) in Airport Development
One of the most transformative shifts in India’s aviation sector.
Key Features
- About 60% of India’s airport traffic now handled by PPP airports (Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad).
- Private partners bring global expertise, operational efficiency, and modern infrastructure.
- PPP mode used to develop Greenfield airports (e.g., Mopa–Goa, Navi Mumbai).
Key challenges in India’s aviation sector
1. Pilot and crew shortages
- Demand exceeds trained personnel.
- New FDTL norms require more pilots, worsening shortages.
- Airlines like IndiGo faced disruptions due to inadequate hiring.
2. Airport infrastructure congestion
- Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru operate near maximum capacity.
- Runway congestion plus parking shortages increase delays.
3. High operational costs
- ATF prices remain elevated.
- Aircraft leasing costs (in USD) rise due to rupee depreciation.
- Maintenance expenses increasing globally.
4. Aggressive scheduling without buffers
- Airlines design schedules without standby crew or spare aircraft.
- Increases vulnerability to disruptions.
5. Weak passenger protection mechanisms
- During mass cancellations, passengers face:
- Poor communication
- Limited compensation
- Insufficient grievance redressal
6. Dependence on foreign aircraft & parts
- Aircraft, engines, spares rely on global supply chains.
- Vulnerable to delays and currency fluctuations.
7. Aviation safety risks
- Recent incidents raise concerns about oversight capacity.
- Rapid air traffic growth increasing operational pressure.
Measures to strengthen India’s aviation sector
Temporary regulatory relief with caution
- DGCA’s exemptions for IndiGo should remain strictly temporary.
- No compromise on FDTL safety norms.
Strengthen manpower buffers
- More standby pilots and cabin crew.
- Strategic hiring to anticipate regulatory changes.
Improve passenger protection
- Automatic refunds
- Real-time updates
- Stronger compensation framework to restore trust
Promote sustainable aviation
- Expand use of Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF).
- Develop environment-efficient airports.
- Align with global carbon reduction schemes (CORSIA).
Airspace modernisation
- Implement Civil Air Traffic Management System (CATMS).
- Deploy Advanced Surface Movement Guidance and Control Systems (ASMGCS).
Infrastructure expansion
- Accelerate development of Greenfield airports.
- Strengthen regional connectivity under UDAN.
Conclusion
The IndiGo–FDTL crisis highlights the urgent need for better manpower planning, stronger regulatory compliance, and robust infrastructure. Safety must remain the top priority, but operational resilience is equally essential. With modernised airspace systems, sustainable aviation practices, and efficient governance, India can ensure stable and safe aviation growth.
UPSC PYQ
Q. GPS-Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN):
I. Provides accuracy and integrity.
II. Enables uniform air traffic management.
III. Benefits only aviation.
Correct statements:
(a) I, II, III
(b) II and III
(c) I only
(d) I and II
Answer: (d) I and II
Explanation
- Statement I – Correct:
GAGAN improves accuracy, integrity, and reliability of GPS signals using satellite-based augmentation. - Statement II – Correct:
It supports uniform air traffic management by providing precise navigation, especially useful for landing and en-route guidance. - Statement III – Incorrect:
Although designed for aviation, GAGAN can support maritime navigation, railways, agriculture, survey & mapping, disaster management, etc.
Hence, it does not benefit only aviation.
CARE MCQ
Q. Consider the following statements regarding the revised FDTL norms:
- The new rules increase the mandatory weekly rest for pilots from 36 to 48 hours.
- The new norms allow up to six-night landings per pilot per week.
- Airlines must submit quarterly fatigue management reports to DGCA.
- The new norms permit more than two consecutive night duties in a week.
How many of the above statements are correct?
a) only One
b) only Two
c) only Three
d) All four
Answer: Two
Explanation
Statement 1: Correct — Weekly rest increased to 48 hours.
Statement 2: Incorrect — Night landings capped at 2 (not 6).
Statement 3: Correct — Quarterly fatigue reporting mandated.
Statement 4: Incorrect — No more than two continuous night duties allowed.
Source: The Hindu
Relevance: GS Paper III – Science & Technology, Biotechnology,
Important Key Concepts for Prelims and Mains:
For Prelims:
- Neurotechnology, Brain–Computer Interface (BCI), EEG, Neural Implants, Neural Stimulation, BRAIN Initiative (U.S.), China Brain Project, Neuro-rights
For Mains:
- Human Enhancement & Ethics, Neuro-rehabilitation, Non-communicable Neurological Disorders, India’s Research Ecosystem (NBRC, IISc, IIT Kanpur), AI–Biotech Convergence, Regulation of Emerging Technologies, Data Privacy in BCIs
Why in News?
Neurotechnology—especially Brain–Computer Interfaces (BCIs)—is rapidly advancing globally, with major initiatives like the U.S. BRAIN Initiative and Neuralink entering human trials. As India bears a high burden of neurological disorders, experts argue that neurotechnology represents a major opportunity for healthcare innovation, economic growth, and scientific leadership.
What is Neurotechnology?
Neurotechnology refers to the use of mechanical, electronic, or computational tools to directly interact with the brain. These systems can record, monitor, decode, or influence neural activity, offering new ways to understand how the mind works and how it can be repaired, restored, or enhanced.
Drawing on advances in neuroscience, artificial intelligence (AI), biomedical engineering, and computing, neurotechnological devices can now sense or stimulate brain signals in real time.
Brain–Computer Interface (BCI): The Core of Neurotechnology
At the center of modern neurotechnology lies the Brain–Computer Interface (BCI) — a system that translates neural signals into digital commands. BCIs act as a bridge between the human brain and external machines.
How BCIs Work
A BCI:
- Listens to electrical activity in the brain
- Decodes patterns into meaningful digital signals
- Executes commands such as moving a cursor, controlling a wheelchair, or operating a robotic arm
Types of BCIs
- Non-invasive BCIs – e.g., EEG headsets placed on the scalp; easier to use but less precise.
- Invasive BCIs – involve implanted electrodes for high-precision control, often used in clinical settings.
Why Neurotechnology Matters for India
1. Rising Neurological Disease Burden
- Non-communicable and injury-related neurological disorders have grown significantly (1990–2019).
- Stroke is the largest contributor to neurological disability in India.
- Neuroprosthetics can help paralysis patients regain mobility; stimulation therapies can reduce dependency on long-term mental health medication.
2. Economic & Technological Opportunity
- Neurotech sits at the intersection of biotechnology, engineering, AI—domains where India is building global capabilities.
- Growing domestic expertise:
- IIT Kanpur’s BCI-based robotic hand for stroke patients.
- National Brain Research Centre (Manesar) and IISc Brain Research Centre leading research.
- Start-up Dognosis decoding dog brain signals to detect cancer—a potential revolution in human diagnostics.
3. Positioning India as a Neurotechnology Hub
- India’s genomic diversity and large clinical base make it ideal for neurotech innovation.
- Rapid growth in the sector globally:
- $6 billion public investment (UNESCO, 2023).
- $7.3 billion private investment (2020).
International Developments in Neurotechnology
United States
- Leads global neurotech research.
- BRAIN Initiative® supports cutting-edge neurotechnologies.
- Neuralink (2024) received FDA approval for human trials: restored motor function in paralytic patients.
China
- China Brain Project (2016–2030) focuses on cognition research, brain-inspired AI, and neurological disorder treatment.
Europe & Chile
- Pioneering neurorights legislation to protect mental privacy and brain data.
- Chile amended its Constitution for mental integrity rights.
- U.S. state of California (2024) enacted brain-data protection law.
Ethical and Governance Challenges
Neurotechnology can decode neurodata—raising concerns of:
- Mental privacy violations
- Manipulation of behaviour (political messaging, commercial persuasion)
- Discriminatory profiling (employment screening, insurance risk scoring)
- Loss of autonomy and informed consent
These risks prompted the emergence of global debates on neurorights, including:
- Mental privacy
- Cognitive liberty
- Freedom of thought
- Personal autonomy
- Protection against algorithmic manipulation
UNESCO’s 2025 Global Recommendations: Key Highlights
UNESCO introduced the world’s first comprehensive ethical framework for neurotechnology.
UNESCO
About UNESCO
- Full Form: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
- Type: Specialised agency of the United Nations.
- Founded: 1945
- Headquarters: Paris, France.
Membership
- 193 Member States + 12 Associate Members.
- UN membership → automatic eligibility for UNESCO membership.
- Non-UN states can also join if approved by 2/3 majority of the General Conference on recommendation of the Executive Board.
- USA announced rejoining UNESCO and agreed to clear USD 600+ million outstanding dues.
Mandate / Objectives
UNESCO works to build peace through cooperation in:
- Education
- Sciences
- Culture
Key aims:
- Quality education for all; lifelong learning
- Science for sustainable development
- Address emerging social & ethical challenges (AI ethics, bioethics, neurotechnology norms, etc.)
- Promote cultural diversity & intercultural dialogue
- Build inclusive knowledge societies through Information & Communication
- Heritage protection: UNESCO World Heritage Sites
1. Principles Governing Neurotechnology
- Beneficence & No Harm
- Autonomy & Freedom of Thought
- Mental Privacy & Data Protection
- Non-discrimination & Inclusivity
- Accountability & Transparency
- Epistemic Justice
- Protection of future generations
Explicit Prohibitions:
- No use of neural data for manipulative, deceptive, political, or commercial targeting.
- No coercive collection of brain data for employment or insurance profiling.
2. Focus Areas
- Clear definitions of neurotechnology and neurodata.
- Sectoral guidelines for healthcare, education, and vulnerable populations.
- Directions for States to adapt frameworks into national laws.
3. Support for Innovation through RRI (Responsible Research & Innovation)
- Ensures ethical and sustainable development.
- Encourages early anticipation of risks, public engagement, and alignment with societal values.
4. Intellectual Property and Open Science
UNESCO recommends:
- Strong governance for IP rights.
- Creation of patent pools.
- Open science models to democratise technology access.
- Recognition that open science conflicts with proprietary IP—requiring careful balancing.
5. Encouraging Self-Regulation
Private companies urged to adopt:
- Ethical codes
- Ethics-by-design
- Internal ethics boards
Applications of Neurotechnology
1. Medical and Clinical Uses
a) Movement Disorders
- Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): Delivers controlled electrical impulses to treat Parkinson’s disease, essential tremor and dystonia.
- Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): Used in stroke rehabilitation to enhance neuroplasticity and improve motor recovery.
b) Mental and Neurological Health
- Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS): Helps manage treatment-resistant depression.
- Responsive Neurostimulation (RNS): Detects abnormal neural activity and prevents epileptic seizures.
- Spinal Cord Stimulation (SCS): Interrupts pain pathways in chronic pain conditions.
c) Sensory Restoration (Neuroprosthetics)
- Retinal implants / bionic eyes: Restore limited vision in retinal degenerative diseases like retinitis pigmentosa.
d) Diagnosis and Monitoring (Neuroimaging)
- fMRI, PET: Detect strokes, tumors and brain injuries.
- EEG, MEG: Map brain activity; used for epilepsy, sleep disorders and Alzheimer’s diagnosis.
2. Assistive and Restorative Applications
- Brain–Computer Interfaces (BCIs): Enable mind-controlled prosthetic limbs, exoskeletons and wheelchairs for patients with paralysis or limb loss.
3. Emerging Non-Medical and Enhancement Uses
- Cognitive improvement: EEG-based neurofeedback and consumer tDCS devices marketed to boost focus or reduce stress.
- Gaming & entertainment: EEG headsets let users control virtual environments using mental commands.
- Neuromarketing: fMRI/EEG used to study subconscious consumer reactions.
- Military research: BCIs explored to enhance soldier capability, accelerate decision-making and control drones via neural signals.
Implications for India
1. Health Sector Transformation
- Improved diagnosis of neurological disorders.
- Assistive technologies for disability rehabilitation.
- Targeted mental health interventions.
2. Strategic and Economic Potential
- Opportunity to lead in low-cost neurotech solutions for the Global South.
- Could align with India’s digital health expansion and biotech vision.
3. Regulatory Imperatives
India currently lacks a dedicated neurotech regulatory framework. It must:
- Establish data privacy protections for neural data (beyond DPDP Act).
- Develop tiered regulatory pathways for different BCIs (invasive vs non-invasive).
- Create oversight bodies integrating ethics, medicine, AI, and law.
- Promote public engagement to address fears and misinformation.
Conclusion
Neurotechnology represents a transformative frontier with profound implications for health, economy, and society. For India, it presents an opportunity to catalyse scientific innovation and address rising neurological disease burdens. Yet, without strong ethical and regulatory frameworks, these technologies risk eroding mental privacy, autonomy, and human dignity.
UNESCO’s global framework offers India a blueprint to guide responsible innovation—one that balances technological ambition with fundamental human rights. The future of neurotechnology will depend not only on scientific breakthroughs but on ethical governance that protects the sanctity of the human mind.
UPSC PYQ
Q. With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following? (2020)
- Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units
- Create meaningful short stories and songs
- Disease diagnosis
- Text-to-Speech Conversion
- Wireless transmission of electrical energy
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2, 4 and 5 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Answer: (b)
CARE MCQ
Q. Consider the following statements regarding the human neural system:
Statement I:
The Central Neural System (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord, which serve as the main centres for information processing and control.
Statement II:
The Peripheral Neural System (PNS) consists only of cranial nerves but does not include spinal nerves.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: (a) 1 only
Explanation:
- Statement I – Correct.
As per NCERT, the CNS includes the brain and spinal cord, and is the site of information processing and control. - Statement II – Incorrect.
The PNS includes all nerves associated with the CNS—this means both cranial and spinal nerves, not cranial nerves alone.
