Agriculture

Agriculture, established over 10,000 years ago, has evolved considerably since its early beginnings. It involves the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi, and other organisms for the production of food, fiber, and various other essential products. This practice was pivotal in the emergence of settled human societies, as the farming of domesticated species led to food surpluses, which in turn fostered the growth of civilizations. The field dedicated to the study of agriculture is referred to as agricultural science.

In developed countries, industrial agriculture, characterized by large-scale monoculture, has become the primary method of modern farming. However, there is increasing support for sustainable practices such as permaculture and organic farming. Agricultural products can generally be categorized into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Raw materials include items like lumber and bamboo, while plants also produce useful substances such as resins. Biofuels, such as methane from biomass, ethanol, and biodiesel, are derived from agricultural processes. Additionally, ornamental products include cut flowers, nursery plants, as well as tropical fish and birds for the pet trade.

Primary Activities

Primary activities involve directly exploiting natural resources and are the most ancient human activities. They are highly dependent on the environment and include:

Gathering and Hunting

• Oldest Economic Activities: Gathering and hunting are ancient practices.
• Regions: Practiced in areas with harsh climates, involving primitive societies that extract both plants and animals.

Features:

• • Low capital/skill investment
  • Low yield per person
  • No surplus in production
• Location:
  • High altitude areas: Northern Canada, northern Eurasia, southern Chile
  • Low latitude zones: Amazon Basin, tropical Africa, northern fringe of Australia, interior parts of Southeast Asia

Nomadic Herding or Pastoral Nomadism

• Primitive Subsistence Activity: Herders depend on their animals for essential needs such as food, clothing, shelter, tools, and transportation.
• Movement: Irregular pattern of movement, depending on pasture and water availability.
• Difference from Transhumance: Transhumance has a fixed seasonal pattern of movement.
• Regions:
  • Central Asia
  • Northern and western regions of Africa
  • Some parts of southern Africa
  • Tundra regions
  • Himalayas (Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gaddis, and Bhotiyas practice transhumance)

Type of Agriculture: Different type of Agriculture is based on the method of forming, different types of crops are grown and live stoke raised the following are main agricultural system—

Subsistence Agriculture: Subsistence Agriculture: Subsistence agriculture is a form of self-sufficient farming where farmers concentrate on producing enough food to sustain their families. A typical subsistence farm cultivates a variety of crops and raises animals to meet the family’s needs for food and clothing throughout the year.Bottom of FormThis type of agriculture is in which forming areas consume all, or nearly so, of the products locally grown. It can be grouped in two categories-

Primitive Subsistence Agriculture:

Primitive subsistence agriculture, also known as shifting cultivation, is practiced by numerous tribal communities in tropical regions, primarily in Africa, South and Central America, and Southeast Asia. This method involves farming small plots of land using simple tools such as hoes, daos, and digging sticks and relies on family or community labor for cultivation.This type of cultivation is known in tropical regions with different names, e.g. Jhuming in northeast state of India, Milpa in Central America and Mexico, and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia. This type of agriculture is used since the beginning of the civilization. In India, the primitive form of agriculture is called Bewar in Madhya Pradesh, Padu in Andhra Pradesh, Koman in Odisha, Valre in Rajasthan and Jhuming in North- eastern region.

1. Top of Form
2. Bottom of Form

Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

This form of farming is practiced in regions where there is significant population pressure on land. Where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for obtaining higher production, this is largely found in densely populated regions of monsoon Asia.

Plantation agriculture refers to large, artificially created forests, farms, or estates where crops are cultivated primarily for sale in distant markets rather than for local consumption. Common crops grown on plantations include fast-growing trees (often conifers), cotton, coffee, tobacco, sugar cane, sisal, various oil seeds (especially oil palms), and rubber trees. Farms that produce crops like alfalfa, lespedeza, clover, and other forage crops are typically not classified as plantations.

Commercial Grain Cultivation is a type of agriculture that is largely dependent on mechanization. The commercial grain farming has been developed in US. This type of agriculture is best developed in Eurasian steppes, Prairies of America and Canada, Pampas of Argentina, Veldts of South Africa, Australian Downs and Canterbury plain of New Zealand.

Dairy Farming is most advanced and efficient type of rearing of milking animals, it is highly labor intensive as it involves rigorous care in feeding and milking, it is practiced mainly near urban and industrial centers which provide neighborhood market for fresh milk and dairy product. There are three main region of commercial dairy forming; the largest is north Western Europe, Canada and south-eastern Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania.

Mediterranean Agriculture is practiced in the countries on either side of the Mediterranean sea in Europe, in north Africa from Tunisia to Atlantic coast, southern California, central Chile, southwest area of South Africa, and south-western parts of Australia. The Mediterranean lands are known as the world’s orchard land, awide range of citrus fruits such as orange, lemons, limes, citrons and grape fruit are grown.

Viticulture is a specialty of the Mediterranean region, because the best wine is essentially made from grapes, this region account for three-quarters of the world’s production of wine. The wine from southern Spain is called Sherry, from Portugal port is called wine and from Italy is called Marsala or Chianti or Asti. The advantage of Mediterranean cultivation is that more valuable crops such as fruits and vegetable grown in winters when there is great demand in European and North American markets.

Market gardening involves the small-scale production of fruits, vegetables, and flowers as cash crops, often sold directly to consumers and restaurants. It is highly specialized, particularly in regions like Northwestern Europe. When done on a larger scale, it is sometimes referred to as truck farming. In areas where farmers focus exclusively on growing vegetables, the practice is also called truck farming. The term originates from the fact that the farms are located at a distance that trucks can cover overnight to transport the produce to markets.

Cooperative farming is a system where farmers voluntarily unite to pool their resources for purchasing inputs, utilizing resources such as land and water, and jointly marketing their produce. The earnings are then shared among the members. Cooperative societies assist farmers in acquiring essential farming inputs. This cooperative movement originated and has been successfully implemented in several Western European countries, including Denmark, Sweden, Belgium, and Italy.

Pisciculture, also known as fish farming, is a key aspect of aquaculture. It involves the commercial breeding and raising of fish in tanks or enclosures, primarily for food production. While fish farming is the dominant form of aquaculture, other methods may be categorized under mariculture. Common species farmed include salmon, catfish, tilapia, cod, and various others.

Sericulture is the practice of raising silkworms to produce raw silk. While there are several commercially viable species of silkworms, Bombyx mori is the most commonly used. The larvae are fed mulberry leaves, and after their fourth molt, they climb onto nearby twigs and begin spinning their silk cocoons.

Bottom of Form

Silk is a continuous filament fiber made of fibroin protein, which is secreted by two salivary glands in the head of each silkworm larva, and a gum called sericin, which binds the two filaments together. To prepare the silk for reeling, the sericin is removed by immersing the cocoons in hot water, which separates the filaments and also kills the silkworm pupae.

Silviculture refers to the management and control of forest establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality to fulfill various needs and values. The term originates from the Latin words “silvi” (forest) and “culture” (growing). The scientific study of forests and woodlands is known as silvology.

Cropping Patterns

Cropping pattern refers to how land is allocated to different crops over time, influenced by factors like climate, soil type, technology, and market demands.

Cropping patterns are influenced by:

• Agrarian Policy: Government policies affecting agricultural practices and incentives.
• Technological Advancements: Innovations in agriculture affecting productivity and efficiency.
• Input Availability: Availability and affordability of agricultural inputs like seeds, fertilizers, and machinery.
• Market Dynamics: Demand and prices for different crops influencing farmer decisions.

When selecting cropping patterns, consider:

• Moisture Availability: Adequate water for crop growth throughout the season.
• Input Availability: Access to fertilizers, labor, and machinery required for cultivation.
• Market Access: Availability of markets for selling crops and processing facilities.
• Soil Nutrients: The fertility of the soil and nutrient concentrations that are suitable for the chosen crops.
• Crop Duration: Matching crop durations with available growing seasons.

Monocropping

Monocropping refers to the practice of growing the same crop on the same piece of land repeatedly over consecutive years. Key points include:

• Soil Impact: Reduces soil fertility over time, necessitating heavy use of chemical fertilizers.
• Pest and Disease Spread: Increases vulnerability to pests and diseases due to continuous cultivation of the same crop.
• Advantages: Simplicity in management and harvesting.

Mixed Cropping

Mixed cropping refers to the cultivation of two or more crops at the same time on the same piece of land.Key aspects include:

• Risk Reduction: Minimizes the risk of total crop failure due to weather variations or pests affecting one crop.
• Complementary Growth: Combines crops with different nutrient needs, root depths, and maturity times.
• Advantages: Increases overall yield, reduces pest infestation, and optimizes land use efficiency.

Intercropping

Intercropping is the practice of growing two or more crops together in definite row patterns. Types of intercropping include:

• Row Intercropping: Alternating rows of different crops to optimize space and suppress weeds.
• Strip Intercropping: Growing crops in wide strips to manage them separately while allowing interaction.
• Relay Intercropping: Planting a second crop when the first crop has flowered but not yet harvested.
• Advantages: Enhances soil fertility, controls pests and diseases, maximizes resource use, and saves time and space.

Crop Rotation

Crop rotation involves growing different crops sequentially on the same land to maintain soil fertility and manage pests. Key features include:

• Fertility Management: Utilizes legumes to enhance nitrogen levels and boost soil fertility for future crops.
• Weed and Pest Control: Breaks pest life cycles and naturally reduces weed growth.
• Advantages: Sustains soil fertility over time, reduces dependency on chemical fertilizers, and maintains soil structure.

Multiple cropping refers to the cultivation of two or more crops in the same area during one growing season, a method of polyculture. This can involve double cropping, where a second crop is sown after the first has been harvested, or relay cropping, where the second crop is introduced while the first is still growing. An example of multiple cropping is the combination of tomatoes, onions, and marigolds, where marigolds help deter certain pests from the tomatoes.

Relay cropping is a specific type of double cropping, where the second crop is sown into the first crop before it is harvested, instead of waiting for the first crop to be fully harvested as in traditional double cropping. This approach allows both crops to overlap in their growing periods, maximizing the use of solar radiation and heat for both.

Advantages of Relay Cropping are: 1.The potential to reduce nitrate leaching (wheat acts as a scavenger crop) 2. Increase carbon sequestration 3. Increase income for producers

Major Crops:

Rice:

Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima. It is a crucial cereal grain and serves as the primary staple food for a significant portion of the global population, particularly in regions like East and South Asia, the Middle East, Latin America, and the West Indies. Globally, rice ranks second in production, following maize (corn). It is a key crop in the monsoon areas of Asia, with Egypt having the highest per hectare rice productivity.

China is the largest producer of rice in the world, in China the Yangtze-Kiang, Sikiang and Szechwan region are major rice growing area. India has the largest area in the world under rice cultivation but due to low productivity it is second after China. Island of Java of Indonesia is the ideal conditions for the cultivation of rice. International Institute of Rice Cultivation is in Manila, Philippines.

Wheat:

Wheat is the leading source of vegetable protein in human food, having higher protein content than either maize (corn) or rice, it is believed that it has originated in Philippines, It can survive in the regions as cold Siberia and as warm as the tropical region because the adoptability of wheat is very high. India has the largest area in the world under wheat cultivation but due to low productivity it is second after China.

Due to high humidity, wheat plant catches ‘Red Rot’ disease, the productivity of wheat is good on the Chernozem soil of the Steppe of Ukraine, Prairies of USA, Pampas region of Argentina is important wheat growing region of the world. Classification of wheat is depend on many factor. According to the season there are two crops of wheat one is Winter wheat and second is Spring Wheat, according to content – Hard wheat(high protein content) and Soft wheat(high starch content) and according to color- White wheat and Red wheat.

Wheat Production

Maize

Corn, a significant food source for both humans and livestock, is cultivated in more countries than any other crop.It is believed to have originated in Mesoamerica where it was cultivated by American Indian, from Chile to Virginia, from Brazil to California, several centuries before the Maya Civilization.

Maize was introduced into Europe (Spain) by Columbus, it is sub tropical plant and grows well between the 50 degree North and 40 degree south latitude, Its growth depends more on high summer temperatures and large amount of water is needed during the growth of the maize.Its relatively short maturation period allows it to be grown in regions with higher latitudes.

The temperate plains of the United States offer some of the ideal conditions for growing corn, making the country the leading producer globally. In the fiscal year 2010, the United States accounted for 39 percent of the world’s corn production.

Maize is also known as Corn (U.S.A.) and Mealies (South Africa), Japan is the largest and most consistent importer of corn in the world and The United States is not only the world’s top corn producer, but also the top exporter.

Coffee:

Coffee is important beverage and prepared from the roasted seeds of the coffee plant, which grows on trees cultivated in over 70 countries, primarily in equatorial Latin America, Southeast Asia, South Asia and Africa.

Coffee bean plant has been discovered in the northeast region of Ethiopia, and the cultivation of coffee first expanded in the Arab world. Ideal geographical condition for cultivation of coffee is found in the plateau region of Brazil, Columbia, and Java Island, Blue Mountain of Jamaica grown the best quality of coffee in the world, Liberia, Arabica, and Robusta are three verities of coffee. Arabica coffee beans are cultivated in Latin America, eastern Africa, Arabia, or Asia.

Robusta coffee beans are cultivated in western and central Africa, across Southeast Asia, and partially in Brazil. Brazil is first and Vietnam is the second largest producer of coffee in the world, USA is largest importer of coffee in the world, India is 6th largest producer of coffee in the world.

Tea:

Tea is the agricultural product of the leaves; tea is the most widely consumed beverage in the world, it is grown as plantation crops. Camellia sinensis is an evergreen plant that primarily thrives in tropical and subtropical climates. Tea plants are propagated either from seeds or cuttings, with seed production taking around 4 to 12 years, and about 3 years before a newly planted tea bush is ready for harvest. These plants require at least 127 cm (50 inches) of annual rainfall and grow best in acidic soils.

Only the top 1-2 inches of the mature plant are picked. These buds and leaves are called flushes. A plant will grow a new flush every seven to fifteen days during the growing season, and leaves that are slow in development always produce better flavored tea, There are six main types of tea: white, yellow, green, oolong, black, and post-fermented, with white, green, oolong, and black being the most widely available in the market.

Certain types, like traditional oolong tea and Pu-erh tea, a post-fermented variety, have medicinal uses. The exact origins of these teas remain uncertain.

Some varieties, such as traditional oolong tea and Pu-erh tea, a post-fermented tea, can be used medicinally. No one is sure of its exact origins.

The usage of tea as a beverage was first recorded in China; Tea plants are native to East and South Asia. Black tea of India and Sri Lanka, Green tea of China and Japan and Olang tea of Taiwan are famous. Indian tea is renowned for its superior quality, with India being the leading tea producer globally, followed by Sri Lanka as the second-largest producer. Kenya and USA is the largest importer of tea in the world.

Sugarcane:

Sugarcane is a crop of tropical wet climate, which is indigenous to tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia, Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical or temperate climate, with a minimum of 60 centimeters (24 in) of annual moisture. Different species likely have distinct origins, with S. barberi believed to have originated in India and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea. Crystallized sugar was reported 5,000 years ago in the Indus Valley Civilization, located in modern-day Pakistan and north India. Arab traders introduced sugar from South Asia to the other parts of the world. Sugarcane production greatly influenced many tropical Pacific Islands, Brazil is the biggest grower of sugarcane, India is second largest producer of sugarcane in the world.

Cotton:

Cotton is a soft, fluffy fiber that forms in a protective capsule, or boll, around the seeds of cotton plants from the genus Gossypium. This shrub is native to tropical and subtropical areas worldwide, including the Americas, Africa, and India. For cotton to grow successfully, it requires a long frost-free period, ample sunlight, and moderate rainfall, typically between 600 and 1200 mm (24 to 48 inches). The crop thrives in fairly heavy soils, which are commonly found in the seasonally dry tropics and subtropics of both the Northern and Southern hemispheres.

The South Plains region of the United States is the largest continuous cotton-growing area in the world.Cotton is used to make a number of textile products, the best quality of cotton is grown in USA and West Indies which has five centimeter long fibers, and this is called “Sea-Island” cotton. “Medium Staple” cotton is grown in Nile Valley which has 3 to 5 centimeter long fiber, it is also called “Egyptian cotton” and due to it’s high quality it is also known as “White Gold”. Small staple cotton is grown in India, which is shorter than 2.50cm. The largest producers of cotton, currently (2009), are China and India but The largest exporters of raw cotton are the United States.

Natural Rubber:

Natural rubber, also called China rubber or caoutchouc, is an elastomer (an elastic hydrocarbon polymer) that was originally derived from latex, a milky colloid produced by some plants. Rubber is latex of tree found in tropical forest of Amazon and Zaire besin, Rubber is main product of Southeast Asia, Today Asia is the main source of natural rubber, accounting for around 94% of output. Thailand is the largest producer of Rubber in the world second is Indonesia and third is Malaysia, Malaysia is largest exporter of rubber and USA is largest importer in the world.

Animal husbandry

Animal husbandry is the science of managing and caring for domestic animals, primarily raised for food or other products. The largest population of domestic animals is found in Asian countries. It is practiced in five part of the world-

1. Coastal region of North America and Plain of Prairie
2. Veldt region of South Africa
3. Temperate grassland of New Zealand and Downs of Australia
4. Llanos and Pampas grassland of South America
5. Region in the east of the Caspian Sea and North of Arabian Sea

Commercial significance of Animal Husbandry is due to following reasons:

1. Milk: Dairy products are commonly found in European, Middle Eastern and Indian cuisine. Currently, the average per capita milk availability is 337 grams, compared to the global average of 229 grams. Notably, milk production experienced a 16.9% increase during the years 2014-17, compared to the period from 2011-14. The total milk consumption (as fluid milk and processed products) per person varies widely from highs in Europe and North America to lows in Asia, India is the world’s largest milk-producing country.
2. Meat: China is a large meat producer with over 50 per cent of the pork production and one third of all meat production. USA is the second largest meat producer country and India is fifth largest country of the world. World’s smallest island nation of Nauru consumes the most meat per capita. Brazil – world’s biggest exporter of meat and Russia, world’s biggest importer country.
3. Wool: Australia is the top producer of wool, primarily sourced from Merino sheep. New Zealand is the second-largest producer of wool, China, Russia, South Africa and USA also major producer of wool, Dry and temperate climate is sutable for rearing sheep. Merino sheep reared in the Murray-Darling basin of Australia.

Fishing

Fish and fish products are providing the world’s prime source of high-quality protein, the major category of fish caught and consumed in the world are Herring, Haddock, Sardine, Mackerel, Pilcard, Tuna, Cod, Heck and Ekri, the variety of fish depend upon the nature of water. A fishery is a designated area that supports a fish or aquatic population, which is harvested for its commercial worth. Fisheries can be marine (saltwater) or freshwater. Wild fisheries are sometimes called capture fisheries. Fishes can be classified as –

• 1. Fresh water fish (river, lakes and ponds)
  2. Saline water fish (coastal, sea and saline lake water)

Favorable condition for fishing is Shallow water area, Plankton, Meeting point of warm and cold water current, Good transportation. World’s favorite fishing grounds are located between 40 degree to 60 degree latitude. The primary commercial fishing areas are found in the cooler waters of the northern hemisphere, typically at relatively high latitudes.

Major fishing grounds of the world:

1. The North-East Atlantic Region: This region is the world’s largest exporter of fish.This region extend from Mediterranean sea to North Sea, Baltic Sea and White Sea through Bay of Biscay. Norway first and Denmark takes second place, followed by Spain, Iceland and Britain in fishing in this region.
2. The North-West Atlantic Region: This region istradi­tionally the world’s richest cod-fishing region, this region extend from New England and Newfoundland to Labrador in the north, this region borders Canada and the United States. Here warm Gulf stream current meet with cold Labrador current at about-latitude 45 degree N to 55 degree N. World famous fishing grounds like- Georges Bank, St Pierre Bank, Grand Bank, Bounds and Sebil Island Bank. Grand Bank is the largest and most important fishing ground. Most of the fishing is done in the continental self of NovoScotia(Georges Bank) and Newfoundland(Grand Bank).
3. The North-East Pacific Region:

This region extend from California to Alaska, Salmon is the most valuable fish caught in this region, tuna and sardine are important in the warmer waters off the California coast, the fisherman of Canada and USA catches fish from this region.

1. The North-West Pacific Region: This region extends from the Bering Sea to the East China Sea. This is largest and most important fishing ground of the world, cold Oyashio ocean current coming from north and warm Kuroshio ocean current coming from south or Equater meet at Japan in this region. So Japan leads in catch, followed by China, South and North Koreas, and eastern Russia. The Sea of Okhotsk, Sea of Japan, Yellow Sea, and East China Sea are all located in this region. Probably there are more people engaged in fishing in this region than in any other region of the world.
2. Peru and Chile coast in Southern Pacific Region:

This is the only fishing ground of south Hemisphere is situated along the western coast south America continent. Peru and Chile is main fish catching countries of this region.

Global Food Security

Food security is described as a condition in which everyone, at all times, has both physical and economic access to adequate, safe, and nutritious food that satisfies their dietary requirements and food preferences for a healthy and active life.This definition, established during the 1996 World Food Summit, encompasses multiple dimensions to ensure comprehensive food security.

Four Main Dimensions of Food Security

1. Physical Availability of Food: Refers to the availability of food within a region, determined by food production levels, stock levels, and net trade. Ensuring a stable and sufficient supply is crucial for food security.
2. Economic and Physical Access to Food:An adequate food supply at the national or international level does not necessarily ensure food security at the household level.Factors such as income, expenditure, market dynamics, and food prices are critical in ensuring that households can access sufficient food.
3. Food Utilization: This involves the body’s ability to make the most of the nutrients in the food consumed. It includes factors like proper care and feeding practices, food preparation methods, dietary diversity, and intra-household food distribution. Proper utilization is essential for maintaining good nutritional status.
4. Stability of the Other Three Dimensions Over Time: Even if current food intake is adequate, food security requires that access to sufficient food remains stable over time. Factors such as adverse weather, political instability, and economic fluctuations can affect this stability, potentially leading to food insecurity.

Present Status of Global Food Security

The global hunger and malnutrition crisis has reached alarming levels. According to the World Food Programme (WFP):

• Current Crisis: Over 345 million people are facing high levels of food insecurity in 2023. This figure is more than twice the number from 2020, marking an increase of 200 million people compared to pre-COVID-19 levels.
• Famine Risk: At least 129,000 people in Burkina Faso, Mali, Somalia, and South Sudan are expected to experience famine.
• Challenges: The WFP faces significant challenges, including an increasing number of acutely hungry people and record-high costs of delivering food assistance due to rising food and fuel prices.

Funding and Assistance Gaps

The global community’s commitment to ending hunger and malnutrition by 2030 is at risk due to funding gaps and cuts in assistance. These gaps can lead to:

• Increased Hunger and Malnutrition: Unmet needs result in heightened risks of hunger and malnutrition.
• Lost Lives: Without necessary resources, there is a significant risk of increased mortality.
• Reversal of Development Gains: Hard-earned progress in reducing hunger and improving food security may be reversed.