II. Modern Trends in Application of Knowledge of Science: 1

Theme 2:     Major Crops of India

Theme 3:     Major Challenges Faced by Indian Agriculture, Importance & characteristics of Forest Plant Species

Theme 4:     Medicinal Plants

Theme 5:     Useful and Harmful Plants and Their Utility for Mankind

Theme 6:     Harmful Plants and Their Impact

Theme 7:     National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)

Theme 8:     Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA)

·        ICAR: Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) drives advancements in high-yielding crops and agricultural sustainability.

·        Green & Yellow Revolution: Key role- increasing food security and agricultural output.

Structure of Crop Science Division

·        ICAR’s Crop Science Division: Largest within ICAR, focused on crop improvement, genetic resources, pest management.

·        Network: 1 deemed university, 21 national institutes, 3 bureaux, 25 AICRPs, etc.

6 Major Schemes:

1.      Basic & Strategic Research.

2.      Plant Genetic Resource Management.

3.      Genetic Improvement for Food & Fodder Crops.

4.      Pulse & Oilseed Crop Improvement.

5.      Commercial Crop Genetic Gains.

6.      Insect & Microbial Resources.

2.      Seed Production: Hybrid seed technologies for quality seeds.

3.      Genetic Resource Conservation: Preserve biodiversity for sustainable agriculture.

4.      Crop Protection: Eco-friendly pest management, bioinsecticides.

5.      Knowledge Advisory: Consultancy for farmers & policymakers.

Achievements

1.      Green & Yellow Revolutions: High-yielding cereals, pulses, and oilseeds (1960s & 1990s).

2.      Hybrid Development: First in pearl millet & cotton (1970s); hybrids in castor, safflower, rice, etc.

3.      Molecular Breeding: Marker-assisted breeding; blight-resistant Pusa Basmati.

4.      Genetic Conservation: 346,000 germplasm accessions conserved (NBPGR).

5.      Bioinsecticides: DOR Bt-1, KNOCK W.P., and pest management advancements.

Future Prospects & Challenges

1.      Climate-Resilient Agriculture: Drought, flood, heatwave-tolerant crops.

2.      Precision Agriculture: Use of digital tools for optimizing farming practices.

3.      Sustainable Intensification: Increase productivity while conserving the environment.

4.      Global Collaboration: Enhance research with international cooperation.

• Objective: Grow food for family consumption.
• Characteristics: Small landholdings, traditional methods, low inputs.
• Regions: West Bengal, Assam, Odisha, Himalayan regions.

2. Commercial Farming

• Objective: Produce crops for market sale, profit-driven.
• Characteristics: Large farms, high-yield seeds, mechanization.
• Regions: Haryana, Punjab (wheat, rice), Maharashtra, Gujarat (sugarcane, cotton).

3. Intensive Farming

• Objective: High inputs for maximum yield.
• Characteristics: Small areas, multiple cropping, heavy input use.
• Regions: Kerala, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu (intensive rice cultivation).

4. Extensive Farming

• Objective: Low inputs over large land areas.
• Characteristics: Large landholdings, mechanization, low productivity per unit.
• Regions: Rajasthan, Deccan Plateau.

5. Plantation Farming

• Objective: Single cash crops for sale/export.
• Characteristics: Large estates, labor-intensive, export-oriented.
• Regions: Assam (tea), Karnataka, Kerala (coffee, rubber).

6. Mixed Farming

• Objective: Combine crop cultivation & livestock rearing.
• Characteristics: Diversification, nutrient recycling, secure income.
• Regions: Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra.

·        Importance: Staple food; grown on 1/3rd of cultivated land; Kharif crop.

·        Climate: Requires 24°C avg temperature, 150-300 cm rainfall.

·        Soil: Deep clayey, loamy soils.

·        States: West Bengal, UP, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Odisha.

(ii) Wheat

·        Importance: Second most important food grain; Rabi crop.

·        Climate: 10-15°C during sowing, 75 cm rainfall.

·        Soil: Loamy, clayey soils.

·        States: Punjab, Haryana, UP, Rajasthan, MP.

(iii) Millets

·        Types: Jowar, Bajra, Ragi.

·        Climate: 27-32°C, 50-100 cm rainfall.

·        Soil: Less fertile, alluvial or loamy soils.

·        States: Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.

(iv) Pulses

·        Importance: Protein-rich; nitrogen-fixing.

·        Climate: 20-25°C, 40-45 cm rainfall.

·        Soil: Loamy soils.

·        States: MP, UP, Rajasthan, Maharashtra.

·        Importance: Source of sugar, jaggery, biofuel.

·        Climate: 21-27°C, 75-150 cm rainfall.

·        Soil: Loamy, nitrogen-rich soils.

·        Regions: Satluj-Ganga plain, Maharashtra, Coastal Andhra Pradesh.

(ii) Cotton

·        Importance: Textile industry staple, cottonseed oil.

·        Climate: 21-30°C, 50-100 cm rainfall.

·        Soil: Black soils (Deccan Plateau), alluvial soils (Satluj-Ganga plain).

·        States: Punjab, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana.

(iii) Groundnut

·        Importance: Major oilseed crop.

·        Climate: 20-30°C, 50-75 cm rainfall.

·        Soil: Sandy loams, red and black soils.

·        States: Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat.

(iv) Mustard

·        Importance: Mustard oil production.

·        Climate: 10-25°C, 25-40 cm rainfall (Rabi crop).

·        Soil: Loamy, clay loamy soils.

·        States: Rajasthan, Haryana, UP, MP, Gujarat.

·        Banana: Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat.

·        Mango: Andhra Pradesh, UP, Karnataka.

·        Apple: Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh.

(ii) Vegetables

·        Potato: UP, West Bengal, Bihar.

·        Tomato: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra.

Key Facts

·        Rice: West Bengal is the largest producer.

·        Wheat: Punjab & Haryana are major producers.

·        Millets: Rajasthan is the largest producer of Bajra.

·        Sugarcane: India is the 2nd largest producer globally.

·        Cotton: Largest cultivated area globally; 3rd largest producer.

·        Groundnut: India is the largest global producer.

·        Mustard: Rajasthan leads production, contributing 40% of total.

·        Importance: Major export crop; Indian tea (Assam, Darjeeling) renowned globally.

·        Climate:

o   Temperature: 20°C to 30°C; harmful above 35°C or below 10°C.

o   Rainfall: 150-300 cm annually, well-distributed.

o   Soil: Well-drained, friable loamy soil; rich in humus and iron.

·        Labour: Labour-intensive, requires large workforce for plucking, processing, packing.

·        Distribution:

o   Assam: Largest producer; Brahmaputra, Surma valleys.

o   West Bengal: Darjeeling, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri.

o   Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri Hills.

·        India is among the largest producers and exporters of tea globally.

2. Coffee

·        Importance: Major commercial crop; Karnataka coffee known for aroma, flavor.

·        Climate:

·       Temperature: 15°C to 28°C; shaded growth essential; dry weather for ripening.

·       Rainfall: 150-250 cm annually, well-distributed.

·       Soil: Well-drained loamy soil, rich in humus; needs regular manuring.

·        Labour: Labour-intensive, requires workforce for pruning, plucking, drying, grading.

·        Distribution:

·       Karnataka: Leading producer; Chikmagalur, Kodagu, Hassan.

·       Kerala: Wayanad region.

·       Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri Hills.

·        Facts: Indian coffee is known for quality and is highly sought after in international markets.

·       Decline – growth of key crops like rice and wheat.

·       Population growth increases food demand.

·       Raises concerns similar to pre-Green Revolution dependence on imports.

2.      High Cost of Farm Inputs:

·       Increased costs – fertilizers, pesticides, HYV seeds, labor.

·       Reduced government subsidies exacerbate financial stress.

·       Farmers often fall into debt due to high input costs.

3.      Soil Exhaustion:

·       Repeated cropping depletes soil nutrients.

·       Overuse of chemical fertilizers hinders long-term productivity.

·       Lack of crop rotation leads to declining yields.

4.      Depletion of Groundwater:

·       Over-extraction – Green Revolution regions like Punjab, Haryana.

·       Falling water tables risk “water famine” and long-term agricultural sustainability.

5.      Impact of Global Climatic Change:

·       Predicted temperature rise – (2°C-3°C).

·       More frequent cyclones, erratic rainfall, droughts.

·       Coastal areas face risks – salinity, harming rice cultivation.

6.      Impact of Globalization:

·       Increased competition – subsidized global agricultural products.

·       Rising input costs & falling market prices reduce profitability.

·       Reduction – government support hinders competitiveness.

7.      Food Security Issues:

·       Stagnation in food grain production affects national food security.

·       Increasing population stresses accessibility and affordability of nutritious food.

8.      Farmers’ Suicides:

·       High debt burdens, crop failures, rising input costs are major triggers.

·       Commercialization and shift to cash crops increase vulnerability.

·       Regions affected: Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh.

·       Species: Pine, Cedrus (Deodar), Fir.

·       Characteristics: Needle-like leaves, cones, evergreen, adapted to cold, snowy conditions.

2.      Deciduous Forests:

·       Species: Oak, Beech, Hickory, Chestnut.

·       Characteristics: Broad leaves shed annually, rich soil, seasonal leaf changes.

3.      Tropical Rainforests:

·       Species: Broad-leaved evergreen trees, orchids, vines.

·       Characteristics: High biodiversity, stratified vegetation layers, epiphytes.

·       Foundation for forest ecosystems through photosynthesis.

·       Support entire food chains and nutrient cycles.

2.      Environmental Regulation:

·       Regulate climate by absorbing CO2 and releasing O2.

·       Prevent soil erosion and maintain water cycles.

3.      Support for Wildlife:

·       Provide habitats, shelter, and food for various species.

·       Maintain biodiversity through complex forest structures.

4.      Commercial and Economic Value:

·       Source of timber, resin, lac, medicinal plants, and products.

·       Support industries like sericulture and lac culture.

5.      Cultural and Recreational Value:

·       Spiritual significance, recreational uses like eco-tourism.

·       Enhance quality of life and contribute to local economies.

·        Source: Direct/indirect source of most medicinal compounds.

Key Medicinal Plants and Examples

·        Quinine: Discovered through trial and error, used to treat malaria.

·        Amla: Traditional remedy for digestive, heart, respiratory, and skin conditions.

Drugs from Lower Plants

Fungi-derived drugs:

o   Penicillin, Streptomycin, Tetracycline: Revolutionary antibiotics.

o   Ergot (Claviceps purpurea): Used – obstetrics – childbirth, blood pressure control, uterine haemorrhage management.

·        China: Over 6000 years of using plants for drugs.

·        India:

o   Rigveda (3500-1800 BC): Earliest reference to medicinal plants.

o   Atharvaveda (200-100 BC): Extensive descriptions of medicinal plants.

o   Key figures:

§  Charaka: Charaka Samhita (1000 BC-100 AD), described 700+ plant-based drugs.

§  Sushruta: Sushruta Samhita, focused on plant-derived medicines.

Central Drug Research Institute of India (CDRI)

·        Location: Lucknow, India.

·        Role: Research and development of drugs from natural sources, focusing on medicinal plants.

·        Contributions: Continuous discovery of plant-based medicines for various diseases.

·       Ideal for home gardens: Provides food security, healthcare, income generation, and nutrition.

·       Examples: Tulsi, Mint, Stevia, Gudmar, Brahmi.

·       Bangladesh initiatives: Empower women to cultivate medicinal plants for income and conservation.

2.       Easy to Establish:

·       Hardy nature: Can grow in various climates and soil types.

·       Conserved through ex-situ (off-site) and in-situ (on-site) methods.

3.       Minimum Care:

·       Require minimal inputs and attention for growth.

·       Suitable for small-scale farmers with limited resources.

4.       Short Duration:

·       Quick harvesting cycle: Often 3-4 months after planting.

·       Example: Brahmi, Tulsi, Stevia, Lemongrass can be harvested multiple times annually.

5.       Multipurpose Uses:

·       Valued for culinary, medicinal, and cosmetic purposes.

·       Examples: Tulsi, Aloe Vera, Mint, Brahmi.

6.       Income Generation:

·       Provides supplementary income to forest dwellers and rural populations.

·       Important for subsistence farmers, small-scale cultivators, and traders.

7.       Employment Opportunities:

·       Generates jobs in harvesting, drying, packing, sorting, and transporting.

·       Contributes to poverty alleviation in rural and disadvantaged communities.

8.       Post-Harvest and Value Addition:

·       Women’s role: Key players in processing and adding value post-harvest.

·       Example: In Pakistan, women manage drying and selling medicinal herbs.

·        Fruits & Vegetables: Apples, bananas, spinach, tomatoes—sources of vitamins, minerals, fiber, reduce risk of chronic diseases.

·        Legumes & Pulses: Lentils, chickpeas—protein-rich, crucial for food security, especially in vegetarian diets.

·        Nuts & Seeds: Almonds, walnuts—nutrient-dense, promote cardiovascular health.

Pharmaceuticals:

o   Quinine: Derived from cinchona bark, treats malaria.

o   Aspirin: Originally from willow tree.

o   Morphine: From opium poppy, a powerful painkiller.

o   Digitalis: From foxglove, treats heart conditions.

o   Vincristine & Vinblastine: From Madagascar periwinkle, used in chemotherapy.

·        Aromatic Plants: Lavender, rosemary, eucalyptus—used in aromatherapy for stress relief.

·        Textile Industry: Cotton, flax, hemp—provide fibers for clothing, bedding, and textiles.

·        Rubber: From the rubber tree, essential for tires, gloves.

·        Paper & Pulp: From eucalyptus, spruce, used for writing, packaging.

·        Biofuels: Sugarcane, corn used in ethanol, soybeans in biodiesel.

Cultural & Spiritual Significance

·        Religious Practices: Tulsi in Hinduism, olive tree in Christianity, Islam, Judaism.

·        Symbolism: Lotus (Buddhism) for purity, oak tree (Western cultures) for strength.

·        Traditional Crafts: Plants used in basket weaving, natural dyes, and paints.

·        Carbon Sequestration: Plants, especially trees, absorb CO2, reducing climate change.

·        Soil Conservation: Plant roots prevent erosion, contribute to soil fertility.

·        Water Cycle Regulation: Plants return water to the atmosphere via transpiration and filter groundwater.

·        Wildlife Habitat: Provide food and shelter, supporting biodiversity.

·        Deadly Nightshade (Atropa belladonna): Contains atropine, highly poisonous, causing hallucinations or death.

·        Oleander (Nerium oleander): Contains cardiac glycosides, toxic if ingested.

·        Poison Ivy (Toxicodendron radicans): Causes severe skin irritation due to urushiol oil.

Invasive Species

·        Parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus): Causes allergies, disrupts native ecosystems.

·        Lantana (Lantana camara): Invasive in tropical areas, harmful to biodiversity.

·        Deadly Nightshade (Atropa belladonna): Contains atropine and scopolamine, leads – hallucinations, delirium, and fatal poisoning.

·        Castor Bean (Ricinus communis): Seeds contain ricin, – most toxic substances known; small amounts cause severe poisoning or death.

·        Oleander (Nerium oleander): Toxic compounds oleandrin, neriine; ingestion causes vomiting, diarrhea, irregular heartbeat, and death.

·        Hemlock (Conium maculatum): Contains coniine, a neurotoxin – causing paralysis and death; used – Socrates’ execution.

·        Japanese Knotweed (Fallopia japonica): Aggressive root system, causes structural damage to buildings, displaces native plants.

·        Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): Forms dense mats, blocks sunlight, reduces oxygen in water, harms aquatic life.

·        Purple Loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria): Overtakes wetlands, reduces biodiversity, outcompetes native plants.

·        Poison Sumac (Toxicodendron vernix): Contains urushiol, causes severe skin rashes upon contact.

·        Birch Trees (Betula spp.): Pollen triggers hay fever and asthma.

·        Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica): Hairs release chemicals like histamine, causes painful rash.

·        Ayahuasca (Banisteriopsis caapi): Used in Amazonian shamanic rituals; causes strong hallucinations, nausea, and psychological effects.

·        Datura (Datura spp.): Contains scopolamine, atropine; induces delirium, hallucinations, and severe poisoning.

·        Psilocybin Mushrooms: Cause hallucinations, altered consciousness; used – some cultural practices, dangerous if misused.

·       Focus: Sustainable use of soil & water; supports 60% rainfed areas producing 40% of total food.

·       Goal: Enhance agricultural productivity through resource conservation.

·       Target: Location-specific measures for rainfed agriculture.

2.      Mandate and Objectives

·       Part of the Sustainable Agriculture Mission under National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).

·       Approved by Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change in 2010.

·       Key dimensions: Crop improvement, Water efficiency, Pest & Nutrient management, Agricultural insurance, Market access.

3.      Key Focus Areas

·       Water Use Efficiency: Reduce water wastage.

·       Nutrient Management: Integrated nutrient management to improve soil health.

·       Livelihood Diversification: Integrated farming systems for additional income.

4.      Integrated Farming Systems

·       Crop-Livestock Farming: Combines crop cultivation & livestock rearing.

·       Agro-Forestry: Trees in agricultural landscapes for biodiversity.

·       Fish Farming: Fish culture for income diversification.

5.      Resource Conservation Technologies

·       Focus on soil & water conservation to mitigate drought & floods.

·       Build climate-resilient agricultural systems.

·       Promote Drip Irrigation, Rainwater Harvesting, and Water Conservation to optimize water use.

7.      Improved Agronomic Practices

·       Crop Rotation, Cover Cropping, Precision Farming to improve soil fertility and yield.

8.      Soil Health Management

·       Organic Farming: Reduce synthetic chemicals, use biofertilizers.

·       Soil Testing – nutrient optimization.

·       Soil Carbon Sequestration to mitigate climate change.

9.      Involvement of Knowledge Institutions

·       Engagement – State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), and ICAR centers for dissemination of knowledge and climate adaptation.

10.   Programmatic Interventions

·       Pilot projects – integrated development in rainfed areas.

·       Convergence – schemes (MGNREGS, IWMP, RKVY, NFSM, MIDH).

11.   NGO Engagement

·       NGOs involved – implementing cluster/village development plans in remote areas; monitored by government departments.

12.   Monitoring and Feedback

·       Technical monitoring by experts from central institutes and state agricultural universities.

·       Regular updates to National Advisory Council.

13.   Capacity Building and Training

·       Training by National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE) for officials and farmers to ensure effective implementation.

14.   Coordination and Review Platform

·       Platform for liaison, review, and coordination under the National Action Plan on Climate Change.

·        Critical for Food Security: Helps – climate change adaptation & mitigation, essential – food security in a changing climate.

·        Sustainability: Reduces greenhouse gas emissions, conserves natural resources.

·        Economic Benefits: Could generate additional $10 billion in agricultural income by 2050 (IFPRI report).

·        Emission Reduction: Practices such as agroforestry, precision agriculture, and integrated nutrient management help reduce emissions.

·       High Costs: High cost of adoption and investment in new technologies burdens small-scale farmers.

·       Institutional Constraints: Poor coordination among government agencies; agricultural extension systems not equipped for CSA.

·       Socioeconomic Barriers: Poverty, land tenure issues, and gender disparities hinder adoption of CSA practices.

II. Modern Trends in Application of Knowledge of Science: 2

Theme 2:   Difference between DNA and RNA

Theme 3:   Genetic Engineering

Theme 4:   Gene Therapy, CRISPR-Cas9 Technology, MRT, Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer

Theme 5:   Biotechnology in Agriculture (bio-fertilizers, Bio-pesticides, Bio- fuels, Tissue culture, Cloning)

Theme 6:   Human Genome Project (HGP), IndiGen Pilot Program, Genome India Project (GIP), Tissue Engineering

Theme 7:   Applications of Biotechnology in Various Fields

Theme 8:   Environment (Biotechnology in Environmental cleanup process)

·        Gene Scissors (Genetic Engineering): A tool used – scientists – modify the DNA of organisms to enhance traits like juicier fruits or faster growth.

·        Pest Resistance: Biotechnology provides plants with a “bug-repellent shield” to protect them from pests (e.g., pest-resistant crops).

·        Growth Acceleration (Faster Growth): Scientists use biotechnology to make plants grow faster and more productive.

·        Disease Resistance: Plants can – engineered – resist diseases, improving crop yield and reducing loss.

·        Biotech Applications:

o   Agriculture: Enhancing crop yield, pest resistance, disease resistance, and growth rates.

o   Medicine: Development of new medicines, vaccines, and gene therapies.

o   Environment: Bioremediation (using organisms to clean polluted environments).

Wolbachia Technique (Mosquito-Borne Disease Control)

·       Definition: Biotechnological method using Wolbachia bacteria to control mosquito-borne diseases like dengue, Zika, and chikungunya.

·       How it Works: Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes cannot transmit viruses, reducing disease spread.

·        Structure: Double helix discovered in 1953 – James Watson & Francis Crick.

·        Function: DNA stores genetic information, – helps cells build & repair proteins.

·        Nucleotides: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G).

·        Gene: A specific section -DNA responsible -inherited traits.

·        Single-Stranded Molecule: Found both inside & outside – nucleus, RNA – translate genetic information into proteins.

·        Nucleotides: Adenine (A), Uracil (U), Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G).

·        Function: Plays a crucial role in gene expression and protein synthesis.

·        Enables scientists to add, delete, or alter specific genes for desired characteristics.

Key Aspects of Genetic Engineering:

·        Recombinant DNA Technology: Combines DNA from different sources to create recombinant DNA.

·        Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 allow precise editing of DNA for targeted gene modifications.

Key Steps:

1.      Isolation of DNA

2.      Cutting DNA: Using restriction enzymes to create “sticky ends.”

3.      Vector DNA: Vectors like plasmids carry foreign DNA.

4.      Ligation: Combining foreign DNA with vector DNA using DNA ligase.

5.      Introduction to Host: Recombinant DNA introduced into a host organism.

Applications:

·        Medicine: Therapeutic protein production (e.g., insulin).

·        Agriculture: Genetically modified crops.

·        Biotechnology: Enzymes, vaccines.

·        Research: Studying gene functions and protein expression.

Key Steps:

1.      Denaturation (94-98°C): Separates DNA strands.

2.      Annealing (50-65°C): Primers bind to complementary sequences.

3.      Extension (72°C): DNA polymerase synthesizes new strands.

4.      Cycle Repetition: 20-40 cycles of amplification.

Applications of PCR

·        DNA Amplification: Sequencing, cloning.

·        Genetic Testing: Identifying mutations.

·        Forensic Analysis: DNA profiling.

·        Medical Diagnostics: Pathogen detection.

·        Research: Gene expression studies.

Key Components:

o   siRNA and miRNA: Short RNA molecules involved in silencing.

o   Dicer enzyme: Processes RNA into siRNA/miRNA.

o   RISC complex: Guides gene silencing.

Mechanism:

1.      Initiation: Long dsRNA processed by Dicer into siRNAs/miRNAs.

2.      RISC Loading: siRNA/miRNA loaded onto RISC.

3.      Target Recognition: Guide RNA binds to target mRNA.

4.      Silencing: Cleavage or translation inhibition of mRNA.

Applications of RNAi:

·        Gene Silencing: Studying gene function.

·        Therapeutics: Treating diseases with malfunctioning genes.

·        Agriculture: Developing pest-resistant crops.

·        Viral Defense: Protecting against viral infections.

Key Steps:

·       Sample Preparation: Extracting and fragmenting DNA.

·       Sequencing Reaction: Using methods like Sanger Sequencing or Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS).

·       Data Analysis: Base calling and genome assembly.

Applications of DNA Sequencing

·       Genomic Research: Understanding genetic diversity and evolution.

·       Medical Diagnostics: Identifying disease-related mutations.

·       Personalized Medicine: Tailoring treatments based on genetic makeup.

·       Pharmaceutical Development: Drug discovery.

·       Forensics: DNA profiling for criminal investigations.

Recent Advancements:

·       Third-Generation Sequencing: Long-read techniques like PacBio, Oxford Nanopore.

·       Single-Cell Sequencing: Sequencing at the cellular level.

Challenges:

·       Data Handling

·       Accuracy

Mechanisms:

1.      Gene Replacement: Replace faulty genes with healthy copies.

2.      Gene Inactivation: Turn off malfunctioning genes.

3.      Gene Introduction: Add new or modified genes to treat diseases.

Applications: Treating genetic disorders, cancer, and infectious diseases.

Types of Products:

o   Plasmid DNA: Engineered DNA molecules.

o   Viral Vectors: Viruses modified to carry therapeutic genes.

o   Bacterial Vectors: Bacteria modified to deliver genes.

o   Gene Editing Technology (CRISPR-Cas9): Used to disrupt or repair genes.

o   Patient-Derived Cellular Therapy: Cells genetically modified and reintroduced into patients.

Components:

1.      CRISPR: DNA sequences -bacteria.

2.      Cas9: A protein that cuts DNA at targeted sites.

3.      Guide RNA (gRNA): Directs Cas9 to the DNA sequence to be edited.

Applications:

o   Gene Editing: Modify genes in plants, animals, or humans.

o   Disease Treatment: Correct or replace faulty genes.

o   Agriculture: Improve crop traits.

o   Research: Study gene functions and diseases.

·        Purpose: Prevent the transmission of mitochondrial diseases.

·        Procedure: Involves in vitro fertilization (IVF) and transferring the healthy mitochondria into the embryo.

Somatic Cells

·        Definition: Non-reproductive body cells (e.g., skin, muscle).

·        Genetic Makeup: Diploid, containing two sets of chromosomes.

·        Role: Perform specific body functions but are not involved in reproduction.

Stem Cells

Characteristics:

1.      Multipotency: Ability to differentiate into various cell types.

2.      Self-Renewal: Can replicate indefinitely.

Types:

o   Embryonic Stem Cells: Can become any cell type.

o   Adult Stem Cells: Specialized to specific tissues.

Applications:

o   Regenerative Medicine: Repair or replace damaged tissues.

o   Disease Treatment: Treat conditions like diabetes and heart disease.

Process:

1.      Nucleus Transfer: Somatic cell nucleus is transferred to an enucleated egg.

2.      Blastocyst Formation: The egg divides and forms a blastocyst.

3.      Implantation: The blastocyst is implanted in a surrogate for development.

Famous Case: Cloning of “Dolly the Sheep” in 1996.

Bioinformatics

·        Definition: Use of computational tools – analyze biological data.

·        Applications:

o   Genomics: Study DNA sequences.

o   Proteomics: Analyze protein structures and functions.

o   Drug Discovery: Identify drug targets.

Biomarkers

Definition: Biological indicators – health, disease, or treatment response.

Types:

1.      Diagnostic Biomarkers: Detect the presence of diseases.

2.      Prognostic Biomarkers: Predict disease outcomes.

3.      Predictive Biomarkers: Indicate treatment efficacy.

Pronuclear Transfer Technology

·        Purpose: Prevent – mitochondrial diseases through -mitochondrial replacement.

·        Procedure: Pronuclei from the intended parents are transferred into a healthy donor egg, combining nuclear DNA from parents with mitochondrial DNA from the donor.

·        Benefits:

1.      Nitrogen Fixation: Microbes like Rhizobium, Azospirillum, and Azotobacter fix atmospheric nitrogen.

2.      Phosphate Solubilization: Converts insoluble phosphate into forms plants can absorb (Phosphobacteria).

3.      Hormone Production: Promote plant growth by producing growth hormones.

4.      Organic Matter Decomposition: Improves soil fertility by decomposing organic matter.

5.      Eco-friendly: Sustainable, enhancing productivity without harming the environment.

6.      Yield Improvement: Can boost crop yield by 10-25%.

Types of Biofertilizers

1.      Bacterial Biofertilizers

o   Rhizobium: Fixes nitrogen in legume roots, increasing yield by 10-35%.

o   Azospirillum & Azotobacter: Enhances nitrogen availability for cereals and non-legumes.

2.      Fungal Biofertilizers

o   Mycorrhizae (VAM): Improves water and nutrient uptake (phosphorus, zinc).

3.      Algal Biofertilizers

o   Blue-Green Algae (BGA) & Azolla: Nitrogen fixers in wetland rice cultivation.

4.      Actinobacteria Biofertilizers

o   Frankia: Nitrogen fixer in non-leguminous plants.

Types:

1.      Gene Cloning: Produces copies of genes.

2.      Reproductive Cloning: Creates copies of whole animals (e.g., Dolly the sheep).

3.      Therapeutic Cloning: Produces stem cells for research and therapy.

·        Notable Cloning Cases

o   Dolly the Sheep: First cloned mammal (1996).

o   Samrupa & Garima: World’s first cloned buffalo calves in India.

·        Merits:

1.      Genetic Diversity: Identifies variations (SNPs, insertions, deletions).

2.      Evolutionary Studies: Traces migration, adaptation, and demographic history.

3.      Disease Research: Identifies genetic factors related to diseases.

4.      Precision Medicine: Personalizes medical treatments based on genetic markers.

Challenges:

• Ethical Issues: Privacy, consent, and responsible use of genetic data.
• Representation: Ensuring fair representation of diverse populations.
• Access to Benefits: Ensuring equitable access to discoveries.

Global Programs:

• deCODE Genomics (1996, Iceland): Pioneered large-scale genomic studies.
• UK 100K Genome Project: Large-scale sequencing initiatives.
• US “All of Us” Program: Aims to collect data from 1 million people.
• Genome Asia (India): Focused on diverse Asian populations.

·       Completed: April 14, 2003.

·       Objective: Sequence and map the entire human genome.

·       Method: Sanger DNA sequencing.

·       Outcome: Identified and mapped human genes, advancing biomedical research and precision medicine. Led to new technologies and ethical considerations.

IndiGen Pilot Program

·       Objective: Whole genome sequencing – diverse Indian ethnic groups.

·       Focus: Genetic epidemiology and public health technologies, prioritize pharmacogenomics for Indian population.

·       Launched by: CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research).

·       Indian Genome: First genome announced – Dec 8, 2009.

Genome India Project (GIP)

·       Launched: 2020 by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT).

·       Goal: Collect 10,000 genetic samples to build a reference genome for India.

·       Led by: Centre for Brain Research, IISc, Bengaluru.

·       Focus Areas: Precision health, rare genetic disorders, genetic epidemiology, translational research.

Tissue Engineering

·       Definition: Application of engineering, biology, and materials science to create functional, living tissues.

·       Objective: Develop artificial organs, tissues for repair, and enhance damaged body parts.

Applications:

·       Artificial organs (lab-grown organs).

·       Skin substitutes, dental tissue regeneration.

·       Neural regeneration, spinal cord repair, neurodegenerative diseases.

·       Drug testing, toxicity screening (reduces animal testing).

·       Cultured Meat: Sustainable and ethical alternative to livestock farming.

·       Biosensors: For environmental monitoring and medical diagnostics.

Advantages:

1.      No harmful residues.

2.      Target specificity (affects only harmful pests).

3.      Environmentally friendly, biodegradable.

4.      Cost-effective, suitable for Integrated Pest Management (IPM).

5.      Promotes natural pest control.

Status of Biopesticide Use in India:

·        Significant advancements in biopesticide production.

·        Key Biocontrol Agents:

o   Trichoderma, Gliocladium, Bacillus, NPV.

·        Examples of Biocontrol:

o   Lantana Weed Control by Telonemia scrupulosa.

o   Sugarcane Pyrilla controlled by Epiricania melanoleuca.

Scope for Commercial Production of Biopesticides:

·        India – 140 biopesticide units; potential for expansion.

·        Challenges: Mass production, awareness, market development.

Production Models and Technologies:

·        Trichogramma spp. (Egg Parasite): Mass multiplication on stored grain pests, used for controlling sugarcane early shoot borer.

·        Crysoperla carnea (Chrysopid Predator): Mass multiplied using stored grain pests, controls larval pests.

·        Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (Ladybird Beetle): Controls mealy bugs.

·        NPV of Helicoverpa armigera: Used against bollworms in cotton and pod borers.

·        Pheromone Lures: Trap reproductive males of gram pod borer.

Challenges and Future Prospects of Biopesticides:

·        Challenges: Mass production, farmer education, market expansion.

·        Prospects: Increased investment in production, growing demand, private sector participation.

• Pharmaceuticals: Biotechnology enables the development of drugs, vaccines, and therapeutic proteins using genetic engineering and bioprocessing.
• Gene Therapy: Involves introducing, removing, or altering genetic material to treat or prevent diseases.

Bt Cotton and Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)

• Bt: A bacterium producing proteins toxic to insects.
• Mode of Action: Bt toxins activated in insect guts, causing cell rupture and insect death.
• Bt Crops: Genes like cryIAc and cryIIAb incorporated into crops like cotton to resist pests like bollworms.
• Advantages: Reduces the need for chemical insecticides, increases crop yields.

o   Relies on improved crop varieties, agrochemicals like fertilizers and pesticides.

o   Limitations: High cost of agrochemicals.

·        Organic Agriculture:

o   Focuses on natural farming without synthetic inputs.

o   Challenges: Lower yields, crop losses.

Genetically Engineered Crops

Advantages:

§  Abiotic Stress Tolerance: Drought, cold, salt, and heat-resistant crops.

§  Pest Resistance: Reduces pesticide use by creating pest-resistant plants.

§  Nutritional Enhancement: Examples like Vitamin A enriched rice.

§  Tailor-Made Plants: GMOs developed for industrial use (starches, fuels, pharmaceuticals).

·       India’s Target: 20% ethanol blending by 2025 (advanced from 2030).

Challenges:

o   Engine Optimization: Engines need adaptation for E20.

o   Durability Studies: Testing engines for long-term use with E20.

o   Storage Infrastructure: Separate facilities for E10 and E20.

o   Cost Implications: Upgrades, testing, and storage may increase costs.

o   Public Awareness: Educating consumers about benefits and challenges.

o   Supply Chain: Coordinating ethanol production and distribution.

Challenges for E20 Ethanol Blending:

·       Engine Upgrades: Compatibility for E20 fuel requires design changes.

·       Field Trials: Assessing real-world engine performance.

·       Infrastructure: Separate storage for E10 and E20.

·       Supply Chain Management: Ensuring adequate ethanol availability.

·        Bio-Pesticides: Biologically derived agents targeting pests without harming beneficial organisms.

o   Advantages: No harmful residues, environmentally friendly, cost-effective.

o   Examples in India:

§  Lantana Weed Control by Telonemia scrupulosa.

§  Cotton Bollworms Control using Trichogramma.

Biofuel Types and Production:

• Biodiesel: Produced from vegetable oils or animal fats.
• Bioethanol: Made via sugar fermentation.
• Biogas: Produced through anaerobic digestion of organic matter.

Biofuel

Definition: Derived from living organisms (crops, algae, waste) in forms like biodiesel, bioethanol, and biogas.

Types:

·       First Generation: Produced from food crops (sugar, vegetable oil).

·       Second Generation: Produced from non-food sources (waste biomass).

·       Third Generation: Derived from micro-organisms like algae.

·        Mechanism: Stimulates growth – microbes – use contaminants (oil, petroleum products, solvents, pesticides) as food.

·        Aerobic vs. Anaerobic: Some microbes need oxygen (aerobic), while others work in oxygen-free environments (anaerobic).

·        Safety: Relies – naturally occurring microbes, with safe chemical additives (nutrients). Treated soil and water onsite, reducing waste.

·        Advantages: Cost-effective, minimal equipment, natural process, treats onsite, fewer waste by-products.

·        Composition: A mix of five bacterial strains.

·        Function: Breaks down hydrocarbons in crude oil/oily sludge into harmless CO₂ and water.

·        Application: Used in cleaning oil spills and oily sludge.

Phytoremediation

·        Definition: Use of plants (e.g., sunflowers, willows) to absorb and accumulate heavy metals from soil.

·        Purpose: Reduces environmental metal concentration.

Biostimulation

·        Process: Nutrients – added – contaminated groundwater – stimulate bacteria – break down pollutants – petroleum hydrocarbons & chlorinated solvents.

Microbial Bioremediation

• Example: Bacteria like Pseudomonas putida can degrade pesticides and herbicides, helping clean contaminated soil.

Bioreduction

• Definition: Microbes convert toxic metals (including radioactive elements like uranium) into less harmful forms.

Bioaugmentation

• Definition: Introduction – specific microbial strains – contaminated environments – enhance pollutant degradation.
• Usage: Often applied – industrial settings – treat complex pollutants.

II. Modern Trends in Application of Knowledge of Science: 3

Theme 2:     Food Standards and Regulations

Theme 3:     Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), ISO, Food Control System

Theme 4:     Introduction to Food Biotechnology

Theme 5:     Organic Farming

Theme 6:     Agriculture Sector’s Integral role in India

Theme 7:     Defluoridation and Techniques

·       Economic Impact: Affects trade, tourism, employment, and income.

Types of Foodborne Illnesses

·        Food Infection: Pathogens multiply – body (e.g., Salmonella from contaminated raw milk /eggs).

·        Food Intoxication: Toxins – bacteria remain – food (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus in improperly stored food).

2.       Processed Foods: Packaged spices, condiments, and mixes – growing concerns – urban areas.

3.       Complex Logistics: Transport & storage – food increase contamination risks.

4.       Microbial Adaptations: Rise – antibiotic-resistant strains and foodborne diseases.

5.       Global Trade: India must meet international food safety standards for WTO agreements.

Emerging Pathogens

·        New pathogens – Norovirus & Rotavirus cause global concern.

·        Contributing factors – genetic mutations, changes – production practices, & globalization of food supply.

·        Toxicity: Ability of substances -cause harm.

·        Hazards:

o   Physical: Foreign objects (e.g., stones, hair).

o   Chemical: Pesticides, additives, toxic metals.

o   Biological: Bacteria, viruses, parasites causing illnesses.

Food Contamination and Adulteration

·        Contamination: Presence – harmful substances in food before / after processing.

·        Adulteration: Lowering food quality – adding inferior materials or extracting valuable components.

Key Measures:

·       Quality of raw materials & water.

·       Cleanliness of premises & equipment.

·       Correct storage temperatures.

·       Food hygiene practices.

·       Proper service practices.

Levels of Food Standards:

1. Company Standards: Internal benchmarks.
2. National Standards (FSSAI – India): Mandatory regulations for food safety and consumer protection.
3. Regional Standards: Harmonized for local needs.
4. International Standards (ISO, Codex Alimentarius): Facilitate global trade.

Voluntary Certification:

·       ISI Mark (BIS): Quality assurance for various products, including food.

·       Agmark: Certification for agricultural products, ensures grading and quality.

·        Consumer Protection Council: Resolves complaints and promotes awareness.

Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006:

• FSSAI: Regulates all food-related activities in India.
• Unified Law: Repealed older food laws, consolidated under FSSAI.
• Powers: Framing regulations, setting standards, promoting food safety awareness.

General Provisions under FSS Act

1. Approved additives and processing aids only.
2. Limits on contaminants and residues.
3. Mandatory proper labeling.

• Adulterant: Lowers food safety/quality.
• Contaminant: Unintended substances in food.
• Food Business Operator: Ensures compliance with food laws.

Compliances:

1. Registration/Licensing: Mandatory for food vendors and businesses.
2. FSMS Plan: Ensures safety measures in food production.
3. Potable Water: Must be used in food preparation.

Food Safety Regulations (2011):

• Packaging Regulation: Approved materials for food packaging.
• Fortification and Organic Food Regulation: Ensures compliance for fortified and organic food.
• Contaminants Regulation: Limits for harmful substances.

·        Objective: Global food safety standards- protect consumer health, facilitate trade.

·        Members: 187 countries (as of 2017), India – Ministry of Health.

·        Document: Codex Alimentarius (Food Code) – global food standards, guidelines, codes of practice.

·        Functions:

o   Regulations: Sets global food safety standards.

o   Support: Provides scientific, technical support to governments.

o   Risk Assessment: Data on food consumption, biological risks.

o   International Collaboration: Contributes to international technical food standards.

o   Training: For food business operators on safety standards.

·        Objective: Promote standardization worldwide.

·        Key Standard: ISO 9000 – Quality management reference.

·        Voluntary: Standards – voluntarily adopted, reviewed – 5years.

·        Focus: International standards – quality, safety, efficiency in products and services.

Differences Between Codex and ISO

Codex:

·       Creates minimal acceptable food safety practices.

·       Used for national food safety regulations.

·       Slow to change.

ISO:

·       Voluntary, updated regularly.

·       Reflects industrial practices.

·        Objective: Smooth, free, and fair trade by managing agreements, resolving disputes.

·        Covers: Goods, services, intellectual property.

Food Control System

1.      Food Inspection:

o   Ensures compliance with food safety standards during production, processing, storage.

o   Carried out by government-appointed inspectors.

2.      Analytical Capability:

o   Lab Requirements: Accredited, state-of-the-art labs.

o   Expertise: Well-trained personnel for food analysis (physical, chemical, microbiological).

o   Detection: Identifying contaminants, pathogens, biotoxins.

• Definition: Application of technology to modify genes -plants, animals, microorganisms – improve food traits.
• Scope: Includes GMOs, enzymes, fermentation, crop/animal improvement.

Historical Development

1.      DNA Discovery (1953): Watson & Crick’s double-helix structure discovery.

2.      Recombinant DNA Technology (1970s): Genetic manipulation.

3.      First GMO (1994): Flavr Savr tomato.

4.      CRISPR (2010s): Precise gene-editing.

2.      Nutritionally Enhanced Foods: Golden Rice (Vitamin A).

3.      Animal Biotechnology: Cloning, genetic modification for better livestock.

4.      Fermentation: Improved probiotics, biofuels.

Basic Principles

·        Genetic Engineering: Enhances yield, improves nutrition, extends shelf life.

·        Molecular Biology: DNA manipulation (e.g., CRISPR), pathogen detection.

·        Biotechnological Tools: PCR, gene cloning.

2.      Disease Resistance: Genetic engineering to reduce crop loss.

3.      Nutritional Fortification: Golden Rice.

Animal Agriculture

·        Recombinant DNA: Growth hormones like BST for milk production.

·        Cloning: To improve disease resistance.

Fermentation Technology

·        Traditional: Microorganisms in bread, yogurt.

·        Modern: Enhanced consistency and nutritional value.

·        Industrial Use: Enzyme mass production via biotechnology.

Genetically Modified Foods (GM Foods)

1. Bt Crops: Pest-resistant plants.
2. Golden Rice: Fortified with beta-carotene.
3. Flavr Savr Tomato: Longer shelf life.

Advantages of GM Foods

1. Increased Yields.
2. Reduced Pesticide Use.
3. Nutritional Enhancement.
4. Extended Shelf Life.

Biotechnology in Food Safety

·        Detection: PCR for rapid pathogen identification.

·        Preservation: Biopreservation (using LAB), GMOs to extend shelf life.

·        Biosensors: For real-time food safety testing.

Solutions to Food Allergies

·        Genetic Modification: Allergen reduction (e.g., hypoallergenic peanuts).

·        Proteomics: Study of protein profiles to avoid allergenic components.

Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals

• Definition: Foods providing health benefits beyond nutrition.
• Types:

1.      Probiotics: Gut health.

2.      Prebiotics: Stimulate beneficial gut bacteria.

3.      Fortified Foods: Calcium-fortified juice.

4.      Bioactive Compounds: Antioxidants in fruits.

·        Focus: High crop yields without harming – environment or health.

Need and Benefits of Organic Farming

1.      Biodiversity: Conserves soil, reduces pollution.

2.      Economic Sustainability: Reduces input costs with organic inputs (vermicompost, bio-fertilizers).

3.      Market Access: Premium prices -organic products.

4.      Healthier Food: Free from chemical residues, higher nutritional value.

5.      International Market: Increasing demand – organic products globally.

6.      Environmental & Health Benefits: Reduces chemical residues, promotes long-term ecosystem health.

2.      National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP): Launched – 2001 – organic certification.

3.      International Recognition: Certified – countries like the USA, EU.

4.      National Centre for Organic and Natural Farming (NCONF): Established – 2004, renamed – 2022.

5.      Area Under Organic Farming: 6^th largest globally; 2.4% – cultivated area under organic farming (2023).

6.      Leading States: Chhat, M.P, Mah, Raj, Guj.

7.      Sikkim – fully organic (2016).

8.      Organic Production: Diverse products – cereals, pulses, tea, coffee, spices, and organic cotton.

2.      Markets: USA, EU, Canada, Great Britain, Japan, and others.

Government Initiatives

1.      National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA): Launched – 2014, focuses – sustainable practices.

2.      Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): Launched – 2015 – provides financial support – organic farming groups.

Challenges in Organic Farming

1.      Limited Awareness: Lack of farmer education on organic methods.

2.      High Certification Costs: Barrier – small farmers.

3.      Market Infrastructure: Poor access – markets.

4.      Yield Reduction: Temporary during transition – organic farming.

5.      Pest/Disease Management: Difficulty – managing pests naturally.

6.      Quality Control: Complexity -maintaining quality standards.

2.      Tech Integration: Precision farming, IT-based monitoring.

3.      Invest in R&D: Developing resilient crops, innovative organic techniques.

4.      Strengthening Government Schemes: More financial support for organic farming.

5.      Collaboration: Involving stakeholders – FPOs, NGOs, consumers.

6.      Consumer Education: Raising awareness about organic benefits.

Recent Trends in Organic Farming

1.      Increased Demand: Rising consumer demand for organic, chemical-free food.

2.      Tech Advancements: Precision farming, drones, and satellite monitoring in organic farming.

3.      Government Support: Policies and subsidies promoting organic farming.

4.      Expansion of Organic Farming: 72.3 million hectares globally; India among the top.

5.      Sustainability Focus: Practices like crop rotation and natural pest control.

6.      Organic Certification: Ensuring authenticity of organic food.

7.      Urban Organic Farming: Rooftop, vertical farming in cities.

8.      Agroecology Integration: Combining organic farming with ecological principles.

9.      Climate Change Mitigation: Organic farming sequesters carbon, reduces greenhouse gases.

·        Mechanization: 47% mechanized (2022); lower than China (60%) and Brazil (75%).

·        Land Holdings: 86% of total holdings are small and marginal (under 2 hectares).

·        Growth: Predicted 25 years to achieve 75–80% mechanization.

Farm Mechanization

·        Market Value: Estimated -US$16.73 billion (2024), projected to reach US$25.15 billion by 2029.

·        Impact: Reduces cultivation costs, improves productivity.

·        Farm Power Availability: Increased from 0.3 kW/hectare (1970) to 2.54 kW; target is 4 kW/hectare by 2030.

2.      Autonomous Machinery: Robotics, drones for planting, harvesting; targeted pesticide application.

3.      Renewable Energy: Use of solar and wind energy in farming operations.

4.      AI-Powered Machinery: Optimizes irrigation, predicts weather, improves yields.

5.      Energy-Efficient Machinery: Low-emission engines, solar-powered tractors.

6.      Nanotechnology: Improves soil health and nutrient uptake.

7.      Vertical Farming: Controlled environments for urban agriculture.

8.      3D Printing: On-demand manufacturing of spare parts for machinery.

·        Labor Shortage: Workforce in agriculture dropped from 44% (2017) to 41.4% (2020).

·        Tax Incentives: Needed – manufacturing – low mechanization areas.

·        Startups: Raised US$1.1 billion in 2022, focusing – upstream agriculture and climate-tech.

Water Supply and Sanitation

·        UN Declaration: 2010 – Human right to water and sanitation recognized.

·        Water-Stressed Countries: 2 billion people affected (2021); worsened – climate change.

·        Microbial Contamination: Affects 1.7 billion people (2022); linked – diseases – diarrhea, cholera, and typhoid.

·        Deaths: Contaminated water causes ~505,000 diarrheal deaths annually.

·        Access: 73% – global population (6 billion people) used safely managed drinking-water services -2022.

·        WHO limit: Fluoride concentration should not exceed 1.5 mg/L – drinking water.

Health Implications of Excess Fluoride

·        Dental Fluorosis: Discoloration & damage- teeth due to excessive fluoride intake during development.

·        Skeletal Fluorosis: Prolonged fluoride ingestion leads to bone and joint damage, stiffness, and deformities.

Case Studies

1.      India (Nalgonda Technique):

o   Widely used in fluoride-affected rural areas; low-cost, community-level solution.

2.      Kenya (Bone Char):

o   Local production of bone char has provided affordable fluoride removal in affected regions.

3.      United States (Reverse Osmosis):

o   RO systems are common for fluoride removal in households and industries.

o   Method: Adsorption using porous alumina; exchanges fluoride ions with hydroxide ions.

o   Pros: High removal efficiency; suitable for household/community use.

o   Cons: Requires regeneration and operates within a limited pH range (5.5-6.5).

2.       Nalgonda Technique:

o   Method: Uses alum, lime, and bleaching powder for coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration.

o   Pros: Economical; effective for community use.

o   Cons: Chemical handling required; sludge disposal needed.

3.       Bone Char:

o   Method: Adsorbs fluoride via animal bones (tricalcium phosphate).

o   Pros: Effective, low cost.

o   Cons: Ethical concerns, limited capacity, requires frequent replacement.

o   Method: Filters fluoride via a semipermeable membrane.

o   Pros: High efficiency, removes other contaminants.

o   Cons: Expensive, energy-intensive, produces wastewater.

5.       Electrocoagulation:

o   Method: Electric current generates coagulants (aluminum/iron hydroxides) to adsorb fluoride.

o   Pros: Effective for high fluoride levels.

o   Cons: High cost, requires skilled operation.

6.       Ion Exchange:

o   Method: Fluoride ions are exchanged with hydroxide or chloride ions in resins.

o   Pros: High capacity, resins can be regenerated.

o   Cons: Expensive, not effective in saline water.

o   Method: Uses natural materials (banana peels, sawdust) to adsorb fluoride.

o   Pros: Low cost, eco-friendly.

o   Cons: Variable efficiency, needs further research.

2.      Electrodialysis:

o   Method: Uses ion-exchange membranes with an electric field to remove fluoride.

o   Pros: Effective for desalination, low chemical use.

o   Cons: High energy consumption, limited to low fluoride concentrations.

Integration with Other Water Treatment Processes

o   Combination: Defluoridation techniques often integrated with filtration and disinfection for comprehensive water treatment, ensuring fluoride and pathogen removal.

Regulatory Standards

o   WHO: Maximum recommended fluoride level is 1.5 mg/L in drinking water.

o   National Guidelines: Countries often follow WHO guidelines but may impose stricter limits.

Challenges and Future Directions

1.      Access to Technology: High-cost defluoridation techniques are inaccessible in low-income areas.

2.      Sustainability: Disposal of spent adsorbents and high energy consumption are concerns.

3.      Public Awareness: Education -fluoride risks and defluoridation techniques is crucial for adoption.Top of FormBottom of Form

II. Modern Trends in Application of Knowledge of Science: 4

Theme 2: Difference b/n Virus and Bacteria

Theme 3: Common Diseases in Humans and Pathogens

Theme 4: Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi, Protozoans, Helminths

Theme 5: Immunity

Theme 6: Basic knowledge of infections caused by different groups of micro-organisms

·        Examples: Excess ‘black bile’ linked to fevers and hot temperament.

·        Shift to Science: William Harvey’s discovery of blood circulation and experimental methods challenged humor-based ideas.

·        Impact: Mental states affect physical health.

Factors Affecting Health

1.      Genetic Influences: Inherited disorders, deficiencies, and parental genes shape individual health.

2.      Infections: Diseases caused by pathogens (bacteria, viruses).

3.      Lifestyle Choices: Diet, water intake, rest, exercise, daily habits.

·        Definition of Health: State of complete physical, mental, and social well-being (not just absence of disease).

Maintaining Good Health

1.      Lifestyle Factors:

o   Balanced Diet: Essential for health.

o   Personal Hygiene: Prevents diseases.

o   Exercise & Yoga: Promotes physical and mental well-being.

2.      Awareness and Prevention:

o   Vaccination: Prevents infectious diseases.

o   Hygiene & Waste Disposal: Clean environment.

o   Vector Control: Reduces disease spread.

o   Safe Food/Water: Fundamental for health.

o   Infectious Diseases: Easily transmitted (e.g., flu, COVID-19, HIV/AIDS).

o   Non-Infectious Diseases: Not contagious, lifestyle/genetic causes (e.g., diabetes, cancer).

2.      Prevalence:

o   Infectious: Common, global threats like AIDS.

o   Non-Infectious: Cancer is a leading cause of death.

3.      External Factors:

o   Substance Abuse: Drugs and alcohol harm health.

• Disease: Typhoid Fever
• Transmission: Contaminated food and water
• Symptoms: High fever, weakness, stomach pain, constipation, headache, loss of appetite
• Complications: Intestinal perforation, death in severe cases
• Diagnostic Test: Widal test
• Historical Case: “Typhoid Mary” (carrier of typhoid)
• Prevention: Hygiene in food and water, sanitation practices

2. Plasmodium spp. (Protozoa)

• Disease: Malaria
• Transmission: Bite of female Anopheles mosquito
• Symptoms: Fever, chills, flu-like illness
• Complications: Organ failure, death in severe cases
• Diagnostic Test: Blood smear
• Prevention: Bed nets, insecticides, antimalarial drugs

3. HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) (Virus)

• Disease: AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)
• Transmission: Unprotected sex, blood transfusion, childbirth, breastfeeding
• Symptoms: Immune system failure, opportunistic infections
• Complications: Increased susceptibility to infections and cancers
• Diagnostic Test: HIV antibody test
• Prevention: Safe sex, sterile needles, ART for infected individuals

4. Pneumonia

• Pathogens: Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae
• Affected Area: Alveoli (lungs)
• Symptoms: Fever, cough, respiratory issues
• Transmission: Inhalation of droplets
• Complications: Fluid-filled alveoli, respiratory distress
• Prevention: Vaccination, good hygiene, avoiding infected persons

·       Pathogen: Rhinoviruses

·       Affected Area: Nose, respiratory passage

·       Symptoms: Nasal congestion, sore throat, cough

·       Transmission: Inhalation of droplets, contact with objects

·       Prevention: Handwashing, covering mouth while coughing/sneezing

6. Dysentery, Plague, Diphtheria (Various Bacteria)

·       Symptoms: Specific to each disease (e.g., diarrhea in dysentery, lymph node swelling in plague)

·       Transmission: Fecal-oral, droplets, direct contact

·       Prevention: Sanitation, vaccinations

7. Amoebiasis (Amoebic Dysentery)

·       Pathogen: Entamoeba histolytica (Protozoan)

·       Affected Area: Large intestine

·       Symptoms: Abdominal pain, bloody stools

·       Transmission: Contaminated food, water, houseflies

·       Prevention: Clean water, food hygiene, fly control

8. Ascariasis

·       Pathogen: Ascaris lumbricoides (Roundworm)

·       Symptoms: Internal bleeding, muscular pain, anemia

·       Transmission: Ingesting contaminated water, soil, vegetables

·       Prevention: Washing hands, clean vegetables

·       Pathogen: Wuchereria bancrofti, Wuchereria malayi (Filarial worms)

·       Symptoms: Swelling of limbs, chronic inflammation

·       Transmission: Female mosquito bites

·       Prevention: Mosquito control, public health measures

10. Ringworm (Dermatophytosis)

·       Pathogens: Microsporum, Trichophyton, Epidermophyton (Fungi)

·       Symptoms: Scaly lesions, itching

·       Transmission: Contact with infected soil, towels, clothes

• Prevention: Personal hygiene, avoid shared items

General Preventive Measures

·       Hygiene: Handwashing, clean water, proper sanitation

·       Vaccination: Immunization against preventable diseases

·       Vector Control: Mosquito control, fly control

·       Safe Practices: Safe sex, proper waste disposal

·        Pathogens: Disease-causing organisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, and helminths.

Types of Immunity

1.      Innate Immunity (Non-specific, present at birth):

·       Physical Barriers: Skin, mucus.

·       Physiological Barriers: Stomach acid, saliva, tears.

·       Cellular Barriers: White blood cells (leukocytes, natural killer cells, macrophages).

·       Cytokine Barriers: Interferons from virus-infected cells.

2.      Acquired Immunity (Specific, developed over time):

·       Cell-Mediated Immunity: T lymphocytes attack infected cells.

·       Humoral Immunity: B lymphocytes produce antibodies.

• Primary Response: Initial, slow response.
• Secondary Response: Faster, intense response due to memory cells.

Types of Lymphocytes

• B-Lymphocytes: Produce antibodies.
• T-Lymphocytes: Assist B-cells, attack infected cells (cell-mediated immunity).

Antibodies

• Structure: Two light chains, two heavy chains (H2L2).
• Types: IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG.
• Function: Neutralize pathogens – humoral immune response.

Cell-Mediated Immune Response (CMI)

·        Mediated by T lymphocytes, crucial in graft rejection.

Organ Transplantation:

·        Requires tissue matching and immunosuppressants to prevent rejection.

·       Gradual.

·       Induced by exposure to antigens (vaccination, infection).

2.      Passive Immunity:

·       Immediate protection.

·       Transfer of pre-formed antibodies (e.g., colostrum – breast milk).

Vaccination and Immunization

·        Principle: The introduction of antigenic proteins or weakened pathogens to stimulate antibody production.

·        Memory Formation: B and T cells develop memory for rapid response.

Recombinant DNA Technology in Vaccines

·        Example: Hepatitis B vaccine developed using recombinant DNA technology.

• Example: Rheumatoid arthritis.

Immune System Components

1.      Lymphoid Organs:

·       Primary: Bone marrow, thymus (where lymphocytes mature).

·       Secondary: Spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, MALT.

2.      Key Locations:

·       Bone Marrow: Produces all blood cells.

·       Thymus: Matures T-cells.

·       Spleen: Filters blood.

·       Lymph Nodes: Trap pathogens.

·       MALT: 50% of lymphoid tissue, located in mucosal linings.

Disease X:

• Warning by UK Health Experts: Potential unknown pathogens (“Disease X”) – pandemic potential.
• WHO Warning: Disease X – to future hypothetical pathogens that could emerge due – factors like climate change.

·        Symptoms: Diarrhoea, vomiting, stomach pain

·        Transmission: Extremely contagious, spreads via contaminated surfaces, food, water, vomit

·        Affected Groups: Young children, elderly, immunocompromised

·        Prevention: Hygiene, proper sanitation

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)

·        Definition: Virus – weakens the immune system- individuals vulnerable – infections and diseases.

·        Transmission: Unprotected sex- shared drug injection equipment – mother-to-child transmission (during birth or breastfeeding).

·        Stages: HIV → AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) – immune system – severely damaged.

·        Global Impact: 40.4 million deaths.

·        No Cure: HIV – managed -Antiretroviral Therapy (ART); enables long, healthy lives.

·        Global HIV Strategies: Aligned – SDG target 3.3 (ending HIV epidemic by 2030).

·        2025 Target: 95% diagnosis, 95% on ART, 95% achieving viral suppression.

UNAIDS 2023 Report

·        2022 Global Estimates:

o   39.0 million people living – HIV.

o   29.8 million – ART.

o   1.3 million – new infections.

o   630,000 AIDS-related deaths.

·        India 2022 Estimates:

o   2.47 million living with HIV, adult prevalence 0.2%.

o   66,000 new infections (42% decline since 2010).

o   39,000 AIDS-related deaths (77% reduction since 2010).

·        Government Efforts: Substantial budget allocated for National AIDS Control Programme (2021-2025) ($1934 million).

NACO (National AIDS Control Organisation)

·        Established: Nodal body under Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.

·        NACP: Launched – 1992; implemented through State/UT AIDS Control Societies (SACS).

Antiretroviral Therapy (ART)

·        Definition: Combination of anti-HIV drugs to suppress virus replication.

·        Benefits: Reduces mortality, improves life quality, prevents transmission (“Undetectable = Untransmittable”).

ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay)

·        HIV Test: Detects – antibodies – blood, oral fluid, or urine.

·        Follow-up – confirmatory test (Western Blot) for diagnosis.

·        Transmission: Airborne (coughing, sneezing)

·        Types: Latent TB (asymptomatic), Active TB (symptomatic, contagious)

·        Symptoms: Persistent cough, chest pain, coughing blood, weight loss

·        Diagnosis: Tuberculin Skin Test, Chest X-ray, Sputum test

·        Treatment: Antibiotics (6-month course), Bedaquiline for multi-drug-resistant TB

·        Prevention: BCG vaccine, infection control measures

Key Initiatives:

o   Nikshay Poshan Yojana (2018): Financial support (₹500/month) for nutritional needs of TB patients.

o   National Strategic Plan for Tuberculosis Elimination (2017-2025): Eliminate TB by 2025.

o   Global TB Report 2023 (WHO): India accounted for 27% of global TB cases, 16% reduction in incidence since 2015.

o   One World TB Summit (2023): TB-Mukt Panchayat initiative, family-centric care model launched in India.

Japanese Encephalitis (JE)

·        Definition: Arbo-viral disease transmitted by Culex mosquitoes (mainly in rice fields).

·        Symptoms: High fever, neck stiffness, seizures, coma.

·        Prevention: Safe and effective vaccines available.

Leprosy

·        Cause: Mycobacterium leprae.

·        Transmission: Droplets from nose/mouth of untreated cases.

·        Cure: Multidrug therapy (MDT).

·        National Leprosy Eradication Program: Launched 1983, achieved WHO target of <1 case per 10,000 in 2005.

Pneumonia

·       Definition: Lung infection caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi. Leads to lung inflammation and fluid accumulation.

·       Impact: Leading cause of child deaths globally (preventable with vaccines).

Diabetes

·        Definition: Chronic disease caused by the body’s inability to produce/use insulin effectively.

·        Types:

o   Type-1: Autoimmune disease, requires insulin injections.

o   Type-2: Preventable, linked to lifestyle factors (diet, exercise).

·        Global Impact:

o   2021: China (140.9 million cases), India (74.2 million cases).

·        Prevention: Healthy diet, exercise, avoiding tobacco, and regular screening.

·        India (2022):

o   Goa: Highest diabetes prevalence (26.4%).

o   Sikkim: Highest prediabetes prevalence (31.3%).

o   Iron-Deficiency Anemia: Most common, due to low iron intake

o   Vitamin Deficiency Anemia: Caused by B12, folate, vitamin C deficiency

o   Hemolytic Anemia: Red blood cells destroyed prematurely

o   Sickle Cell Anemia: Genetic disorder, abnormally shaped red blood cells

·        Symptoms: Fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath, pale/yellow skin

·        Diagnosis: Blood tests (CBC, iron levels)

·        Treatment: Iron/vitamin supplements, blood transfusions for severe cases

Initiatives:

o   Anemia Mukt Bharat (2018): Reduce anemia prevalence by 3% per year among children, adolescents, and women of reproductive age.

Sickle Cell Anemia Elimination Mission (2023)

·        Focus: Address sickle cell disease, primarily affecting tribal populations.

·        Goal: Eliminate genetic transmission by 2047.

·        Screening Target: 7 crore people by 2025-26 in 17 states.

Poliomyelitis (Polio)

·        Cause: Poliovirus, affects children under 5.

·        Transmission: Fecal-oral route.

·        Global Polio Eradication Initiative: Launched 1988.

·        India: Certified polio-free in 2014.

·        1988: World Health Assembly’s Global Polio Eradication Initiative.

·        Polio cases – decreased – 99% – 1988.

·        Type 2 – wild poliovirus eradicated -1999, Type 3 – 2020.

·        Endemic – Pakistan & Afghanistan (as of 2022).

·        India – Polio-free on 27th March 2014.

Zika Virus

·        Causative Agent: Zika virus (transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes)

·        Symptoms: Mild fever, rash, conjunctivitis, joint pain

·        Complications: Microcephaly – newborns, Guillain-Barré syndrome

·        Public Health Emergency: Declared – WHO – 2016 – Zika-related birth defects.

Lymphatic Filariasis (Elephantiasis)

·        Causative Agents: Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, Brugia timori (roundworms transmitted by mosquitoes)

·        Symptoms: Lymphoedema, elephantiasis, scrotal swelling

·        Prevention: Mass Drug Administration (MDA) campaigns, IDA therapy (Ivermectin, DEC, Albendazole).

National Programs for Disease Control

·        Malaria Elimination Research Alliance-India (MERA-India): ICMR-led initiative for malaria research.

·        Sarva Dawa Sevan (MDA): Campaign to eliminate lymphatic filariasis by 2027.

·        Global Impact: 249 million cases – 2022, – India accounting – 66% in the WHO South-East Asia Region.

·        Symptoms: Fever, chills, sweating, anemia

·        Prevention: Insecticidal nets, indoor spraying, antimalarial drugs

·        Key Initiatives:

o   Global Technical Strategy for Malaria (2016-2030): Reduce malaria cases- 90% by 2030.

o   India’s National Framework for Malaria Elimination (2016-2030): Eliminate malaria – 2030.

Chikungunya

·        Causative Agent: Chikungunya virus (transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes)

·        Symptoms: Severe joint pain, fever, rash, headache

·        Prevention: Mosquito control, no vaccine yet

·        Vaccine: Ixchiq (world’s first chikungunya vaccine approved in 2023 by FDA).

Dengue

·        Causative Agent: Dengue virus (transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes)

·        Symptoms: High fever, joint pain, rash, severe headache

·        Prevention: Mosquito control, no specific treatment

·        Impact: Bihar recorded highest cases/deaths in 5 years (2023).

Kala-azar (Visceral Leishmaniasis)

·        Cause: Leishmania parasites transmitted by sandflies.

·        Forms: Visceral (kala-azar), cutaneous, mucocutaneous.

·        Symptoms: Fever, weight loss, spleen/liver enlargement.

·        India’s Target: Elimination by 2023 (1 case per 10,000 people).

·        Target: WHO road map goal by 2030, India targets 2023.

·        Countries – Bangladesh – elimination as a public health problem.

Nipah Virus

·        Transmission: Zoonotic; from animals (bats) to humans or through contaminated food.

·        Symptoms: Respiratory illness, encephalitis.

·        Outbreak: First recognized in 1999, Malaysia.

·        Treatment: No vaccine, supportive care only.

National Programs and Initiatives

·        National Leprosy Eradication Program: Introduced 1983.

·        National AIDS and STI Control Programme (Phase V): Budget allocation of USD 1934 million (2021-2025).

·        Global Polio Eradication Initiative: Launched 1988.

Hepatitis

·        Definition: Inflammation of the liver caused by viral infections, alcohol, medications, toxins, or autoimmune diseases.

·        Types: Hepatitis A, B, C, D, E (caused by different viruses).

·        Symptoms: Jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, dark urine, joint pain.

·        National Viral Hepatitis Control Program: Launched on 28th July 2018; aims to eliminate Hepatitis C by 2030.

II. Modern Trends in Application of Knowledge of Science: 5

Theme 2:     DTP Vaccine, Diphtheria

Theme 3:     Vaccine-Preventable Diseases: Types, Outcomes, Vaccine Types, and Development Timeline

Theme 4:     Advantages and Disadvantages of Vaccines

Theme 5:     Mission Indradhanush, National Family Health Survey-5 (NFHS-5)

·        Derived – Latin word “vaccinus,” meaning “pertaining to cows.”

·        Jenner’s 1796 experiment used cowpox – develop immunity against smallpox.

Vaccine Ingredients

1.      Antigen: Active component, often a weakened or inactive form of the pathogen.

2.      Preservatives: Prevent contamination (e.g., 2-phenoxyethanol).

3.      Stabilizers: Maintain vaccine stability (e.g., sugars, gelatin).

4.      Surfactants: Prevent settling of ingredients.

5.      Residuals: Trace amounts from manufacturing (e.g., egg proteins).

6.      Diluent: Liquid used to dilute vaccine (e.g., sterile water).

7.      Adjuvant: Enhances immune response (e.g., aluminum salts).

2.      Phase 1: Small-scale testing for safety and dosage.

3.      Phase 2: Larger tests for safety, immune response, age-group variation.

4.      Phase 3: Thousands of volunteers, tests for effectiveness and safety.

Types of Vaccines

1. Whole-Microbe Approach:

·        Inactivated Vaccine: Uses killed pathogens (e.g., polio).

·        Live-Attenuated Vaccine: Weakened pathogens (e.g., MMR, chickenpox).

·        Viral Vector Vaccine: Safe virus delivers proteins (e.g., Ebola).

2. Subunit Approach:

• Subunit Vaccine: Contains parts – virus (e.g., whooping cough, tetanus).

3. Genetic Approach (Nucleic Acid Vaccine):

·        DNA/RNA Vaccines: Deliver genetic material – immune system recognition (e.g., COVID-19 mRNA vaccines).

·        Vaccine introduces antigens (proteins/weakened pathogens) to stimulate antibody production.

·        Memory B and T-cells recognize and combat future infections.

Vaccination Process

·        Antigen Introduction: Pathogen proteins/antigens introduced.

·        Antibody Production: Immune system – produces antibodies.

·        Memory Formation: B and T-cells create immune memory.

Types of Immunization

• Active Immunization: Body generates antibodies (e.g., measles, mumps, rubella).
• Passive Immunization: Preformed antibodies injected (e.g., tetanus, snakebites).

Recombinant DNA Technology

·        Enables – large-scale antigen production (e.g., Hepatitis B).

Autoimmunity:

• Immune system- attack self-cells (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis).

Lymphoid Organs:

• Primary Organs: Bone marrow, thymus (mature lymphocytes).
• Secondary Organs: Spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils (immune interactions).

• Weakened form of pathogen.
• Benefits: Strong immune response, long-term protection.
• Examples: MMR, Chickenpox.

2. Inactivated Vaccines:

• Killed pathogens.
• Benefits: Safer, stable, suitable for immunocompromised.
• Examples: Polio, Influenza.

3. Subunit, Recombinant, Polysaccharide, Conjugate Vaccines:

• Only parts of pathogen used.
• Examples: Hepatitis B, Hib.

4. Toxoid Vaccines:

• Inactivated bacterial toxins.
• Examples: Tetanus, Diphtheria.

5. Viral Vector Vaccines:

• Uses – harmless virus-deliver genetic material.
• Examples: Ebola, COVID-19 (AstraZeneca/Johnson & Johnson).

6. mRNA Vaccines:

• Uses mRNA – instruct cells – produce proteins.
• Examples: Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna COVID-19 vaccines.

Rabies Vaccination

• Rabies is a viral disease affecting the nervous system, nearly always fatal once symptoms appear.

Transmission:

• Spread via animal bites, primarily by dogs (96%- cases – S-E Asia).

Signs in Humans:

• Hydrophobia, fever, hyperactivity, irritability, neck spasms.
• No treatment once symptoms appear. Focus on post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP).

National Rabies Control Programme (NRCP):

• Originated – 11^th FYP (2007–2012), expanded- 12^th FYP
• Aim: Zero rabies deaths by 2030.
• Focus – community awareness, healthcare professional training, and laboratory networks.

·        Tetanus: Known – lockjaw, causes painful muscle spasms, often fatal. Fatality rate: ~10%.

·        Pertussis (Whooping Cough): Severe coughing fits – lead – pneumonia, brain damage, and death.

2.      10 weeks

3.      14 weeks

4.      1st booster: 16-18 months

5.      2nd booster: 5 years

·        Booster Importance: Ensures long-term protection.

·        Older Children & Adults: Td vaccine recommended after 7 years; booster every 10 years.

Side Effects

·        Mild: Fever, redness, swelling.

·        Moderate: Seizures, prolonged crying.

·        Severe (Rare): Allergic reactions (less than 1 in a million doses).

• Spread via respiratory droplets.
• Symptoms: Sore throat, fever, thick coating in throat.
• Vaccine types: DTaP (children under 7), Tdap (adolescents/adults), Td (adults).

Different COVID-19 Vaccines:

• iNCOVACC:

o   Intranasal COVID-19 vaccine by Bharat Biotech, Precision Virologics, Washington University.

o   Provides immune responses at nasal mucosa (blocking infection/transmission).

• • Advantages: Needle-free, non-invasive, eliminates needle risks.

India’s COVID-19 Vaccination Program:

• By 6 Jan 2023: 220 crore doses administered.
• 97% – eligible beneficiaries received at least one dose.
• Precautionary doses started in April 2022.

Vaccine Hesitancy:

• Refers to delay or refusal of vaccines despite availability.
• Factors: Complacency, convenience, confidence.

2.      Economic Benefits: Vaccination reduces healthcare costs – preventing diseases, decreasing hospitalizations, & minimizing productivity loss.

3.      Eradication of Diseases: Vaccines have led to the eradication of certain diseases globally, highlighting their long-term public health impact.

2.       Natural vs. Artificial Immunity: Natural immunity (e.g., from chickenpox) – lasts longer than vaccine-induced immunity, which may need boosters.

3.       Introduction of Toxic Chemicals: Some vaccines contain chemicals – mercury, aluminum, & formaldehyde, raising concerns – sensitive individuals.

2.       Ineffectiveness of Inactivated Viruses: Altered antigens during inactivation – weaken immune responses.

3.       Mutations and Antigenic Variations: Viruses -influenza mutate rapidly, complicating vaccine development.

·        Coverage: All persons – aged 12+ years, including precautionary doses for 18+.

·        Platform: Co-WIN, an extension of eVIN, for vaccine stock monitoring and delivery.

“Vaccine Maitri” (Vaccine Diplomacy)

·        India’s Role: 60% of the world’s vaccine production.

·        Support: India offered COVID vaccines to over 150 countries.

·        Neighborhood First Policy: India provided vaccines to Bhutan, Maldives, Bangladesh, and Nepal as early as Jan 2021.

·        Objective: To vaccinate children and pregnant women who were unvaccinated or partially vaccinated.

·        Universal Immunization Program (UIP): Provides free vaccines – 12 life-threatening diseases, such as Tuberculosis, Polio, Hepatitis B, Measles, Rubella, etc.

·        Intensified Mission Indradhanush (IMI): Launched – ensure- 90% vaccination coverage -Dec 2018, targeting children under 2 years and pregnant women.

·        Monitoring: Reviewed – district, state, and central levels, including under PRAGATI (Proactive Governance and Timely Implementation).

·        State Rankings: DNH & DD (95%), Odisha (91%), Tamil Nadu (89%), & West Bengal (88%) – higher coverage rates, with Nagaland (lowest at 57%).