ENVIRONMENT-1:

Environment vs Development: Definition of Environment, Environmentalism; Environmental Protection Policy, Environmental Policy Instruments.

·       Pollution

·       Climate Change

·       Biodiversity Loss

·       Social Equity

o   Paris Agreement on climate change

o   Convention on Biological Diversity

o   Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

·       National Policies

o   Environmental impact assessments (EIAs),

o   Pollution control standards

o   Natural re-source management plans

o   Renewable energy incentives

·       Market-Based Instruments

o   Carbon pricing

o   Tradable permits

o   Green taxes

·       Political Will and Governance

·       Financial Resources

·       Public Awareness and Engagement

UN backed report by intergovernmental platform on biodiversity and ecosystem services:

o   1 million species – Extinct

o   Urban areas – doubled since 1992

o   Fertilizer use- created – 400 ocean dead zones

o   Global population – reach 9.8 billion – 2050

·       China: Rapid Development and Environmental Challenges

·       India: Struggles with Development and Environmental Protection

·       The European Union: Leading on Climate Action

·       EU’s Green Deal – Europe – first climate-neutral continent by 2050

·       Environment: resources, planetary inheritance, biotic factors, abiotic factors, interaction.

Resource Provision

·       Renewable Resources – Forests (Timber), Fish (food)

·       Non-Renewable Resources – Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), minerals (gold, uranium).

Waste Assimilation

·       Wetlands filter pollutants

Biodiversity

·       Aesthetic and Cultural Value

§  Eg: The Grand Canyon in the USA

·       Air Pollution – SO₂, NOx and particulate matter Eg: Smog (urban area)

·       Water Pollution – Eg: Oil spills (oceans – harm marine life)

·       Noise Pollution – traffic, industries, and urban activities, Construction sites

Degradation

·       Soil Degradation – Eg: Desertification – Sahel region (Africa)

·       Habitat Degradation – Urbanization, deforestation, pollution – Eg: Loss of tropical rainforests

Resource Depletion

·       Mar 27, 1973 – villagers stopped loggers – cutting down trees

Survival vs. Leisure –

·       West- keep places unpolluted (leisure)

·       India – necessity (survival)

Protests Against Environmental Degradation

·       Chhotanagpur and Gandhamardan (Orissa) – damage-bauxite mining.

National Legislation –

·       Elephant’s Preservation Act of 1879

·       Forest Act of 1927

·       Wild Life Protection Act 1971.

·       26 parts – four chapters

·       Response – Bhopal gas spill

·       Accordance – Art 253

·       Central powers

·       Coordinating protection

·       Planning execution

·       Setting standards

·       Restricting areas

·       Appointing officers

·       Establishing laboratories

·       Imposing penalties – 5 years imprisonment, ₹1 lakh fine, or both.

New Environmental Policy of India (2006)

·        Principles of NEP (2006): Sustainable development, precautionary approach, equity, legal liability.

Objectives of NEP (2006):

·        Conserve- Ecological systems, heritage.

·        Equitable access- Resources, especially for poor.

·        Judicious use- Resources for current and future needs.

·        Integration- Environment in policies, plans, projects.

·        Minimize resource use, impacts.

·        Transparency, accountability, participation.

·        Resource flows: Finance, technology, partnerships for conservation.

Tiwari Committee (1980)

·       Comprehensive National Environment Policy – NEP 2006

·       Integrated Approach

·       Regulatory Framework and Pollution Control

·       Polluter Pays Principle

·       Public Participation

·       Research and Technology

·       Decentralized Governance

·       Preventing pollution

·       Regulatory authority- enforcing standards- controlling discharges- granting consent

·       Entry and sampling- testing equipment- criminal prosecutions- injunctions

·       1988 amendment- closing plants, withdrawing supply- stricter penalties- citizen suit- Central and State Boards coordination.

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act of 1977

·       Generating resources – funding boards, economic incentives- pollution control- cess on discharge- revenue use,

·       Implementing Water Act- central payment, state payment – encouraging investment – 70% rebate, effluent treatment.

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 and Amendment, 1987

·       Implementing 1972 Stockholm decisions.

·       Improving air quality, controlling pollution.

·       Expanding Water Act boards’ authority to air pollution.

·       States must establish air boards

·       Industries -consent- State Boards.

·       States set emission standards – central board consultation.

·       Boards granted entry, testing, and sampling powers.

·       1987 amendment: stricter penalties, plant closures, utility cut-offs.

·       Citizen suit provision and noise pollution added.

The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000

·       Objective: Regulate noise levels, maintain air quality standards.

·       Features: Set permissible noise levels (industrial, commercial, residential, silence zones).

·       Central and State Pollution Control Board

·       Ecological approach – human-environment relationship.

·       Develop – scientific basis- rational resource, use & conservation.

·       Scope: Natural resource conservation, rainforests, wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs, biosphere reserves, biodiversity.

Environmental Education, Awareness, and Training

·       Launch: 1983-84 by MoEF&CC.

·       Aim: Develop skills -environmental protection.

National Green Corps

·       Estb: 2001-02.

·       Aim: Environmental awareness among children.

·       Reach: Over 100,000 eco-clubs nationwide.

·       Partnership: Ministries, state agencies, NGOs (environmental education).

National Museum of Natural History

·       Estb: Delhi, 5th June 1978 (World Environment Day).

·       Focus: Environmental education.

·       Target Audience: Primarily school students (include persons with disabilities)

·       Exhibitions, educational programs etc

·       Young Environmentalist of the Year Award (YEYA).

·        Immediate relief – accident victims – handling hazardous substances.

·        Mandatory insurance – Environment Relief Fund- compensation.

National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995:

·        Strict liability -damages-hazardous substance accidents.

·        Features: Tribunal – quick case disposal, burden of proof on owners.

National Environment Appellate Authority (NEAA) Act, 1997:

·       Address environmental clearance cases – restricted areas.

·        Features: Authority – hear appeals on Environment Protection Act restrictions.

The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000:

·       Regulate ozone-depleting substances.

·       Restricts unauthorized sale, purchase, import, export, and use of CFCs and other substances.

(National)

(International)

·        Right to life includes a healthy environment.

·        Rural Litigation Case: Halted limestone mining – sensitive areas (Article 21).

M.C. Mehta Cases:

·        Oleum Gas Leak: Set guidelines – hazardous industries- expanded Article 21 & 32.

Landmark Cases:

·        Chhetriya Pardushan Case: Recognized quality life- Article 21.

·        Subhash Kumar Case: Right to pollution-free air and water.

·        Polluter Pays Principle: Polluters bear pollution costs (e.g., Bichhri Village case).

·        Precautionary Principle: Applied to prevent degradation (e.g., Taj Mahal protection).

·        Sustainable Development: Balancing development with environmental protection (e.g., T.N. Godavarman case).

Case Studies

Delhi Vehicular Pollution:

·       Phased out old vehicles, introduced CNG, stricter emissions.

Ganga Pollution:

·       Ordered closure of polluting tanneries, prioritized clean water.

Bichhri Village:

·       Industries liable – groundwater pollution, enforced compensation.

·       Emission Standards

·       Permits

·       Bans and Restrictions

Economic Instruments

·       Carbon Tax

·       Subsidies for Renewable Energy

·       Cap-and-Trade Systems

Voluntary Agreements

·       Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Programs

·       Industry Codes of Practice

Informational Instruments

·       Environmental Labeling

·       Public Awareness Campaigns

·       Environmental Reporting

·       Variable national commitment

E.g. EU – Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) – COP-27, Implementation 2026

·       Uniform tax rates

·       Resource transfers for equity.

Tradable Quotas

·       Emission quotas

·       Tradable internationally

·       Based – carbon content

·       Time-limited – flexibility.

Tradable Pollution Permits

·       Coexist with domestic schemes

·       Tradable permits.

ENVIRONMENT-2 :

Theme 1:   Natural resources: Forest resources- Commercialization of forests – Forest Acts vs Forest dwellers/ users

Theme 2:   Water: surface water and groundwater, competing demand for water – drinking, industrial and agriculture

Theme 3:   Land resources: competing uses of land- food, feed, fuel, and fibre

Theme 4:   Mining and Environment; Sustainability of natural resources

2.      Tropical Deciduous: Moist/Dry, 75-200 cm rainfall, timber (teak, sal, sandalwood).

3.      Thorn Forests: <75 cm rainfall, Rajasthan, Gujarat, thorny vegetation (acacia, cacti).

4.      Tidal/Mangrove: Coastal, deltas (Sundarbans), saline-adapted, erosion/cyclone protection.

5.      Montane Forests: Himalayas, altitude-based vegetation, subtropical to alpine.

·       Post-Independence Acts: Regulated forest use, often alienated forest dwellers.

Indian Forest Act, 1927

·       Objective: Regulated forest use, categorized forests, restricted access.

·       Impact: Alienated forest dwellers, top-down management approach.

Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006

·       Objective: Correct historical injustices, recognize STs/OTFDs rights.

·       Rights Under FRA:

o   Title Rights: Ownership of land (up to 4 hectares).

o   Use Rights: Access to minor forest produce, grazing areas.

o   Relief Rights: Rehabilitation, basic amenities.

o   Management Rights: Protect, regenerate community forests.

·       Three-step process – Gram Sabha, Taluka, District Committees.

·       Significance: Expands Constitutional protections, democratizes forest governance.

·       Challenges: Administrative delays, technical issues, misinterpretation.

Positive Impacts of Commercialization

·       Economic Growth – Boosts development – creates jobs.

·       Infrastructure Development – Funds infrastructure in forest areas.

Negative Impacts of Commercialization

·       Deforestation/Degradation – Loss of biodiversity – soil health.

·       Community Displacement, Disrupts livelihoods, cultural practices.

·       Loss of Ecosystem Services, Threatens carbon sequestration, water regulation.

·        Fire Control: GIS, remote sensing, fire lines, chemicals.

·        Afforestation/Reforestation: Restoring ecosystems, enhancing biodiversity.

·        Regulated Logging: Sustainable practices, balancing economic/ecological needs.

·        Community Management: Engaging locals in conservation efforts.

Joint Forest Management (JFM)

·       Sustainable Management

·       Livelihood Improvement

·       Community Empowerment

Government Measures to conserve water

2.      Annual Precipitation: 4,000 BCM, primary freshwater source.

3.      Natural Freshwater Sources: Surface water, subsurface river flow, groundwater, frozen water.

4.      Artificial Freshwater Sources: Treated wastewater, desalinated seawater.

5.      Global Water Composition: 97% saltwater, 3% freshwater.

6.      Freshwater Breakdown: 2/3^rd frozen – glaciers/ice caps, rest (mainly- groundwater).

7.      Availability and Potential

8.      India’s Global Share: 2.45% surface area, 4% water resources.

9.      Rainfall: Primary freshwater source, 2nd highest global rainfall.

10.   Annual Rainfall: Avg – 1,170 mm, 1,720 cubic meters per person.

·       Rivers, lakes, ponds, tanks.

·       10,360 rivers and tributaries longer than 1.6 km.

·       Annual Flow: 1,869 cubic km in river basins, but only 690 cubic km (37%) usable.

·       Himalayan Rivers: 90% of annual flow -four-month period, challenging – capture – limited storage sites.

·       Water Flow Factors: Catchment basin size, river basin size, rainfall.

·       Ganga, Brahmaputra, Barak Rivers: Control 60% of surface water, cover less than a third of India’s land.

·       Southern Rivers: Significant flow variability throughout the year.

2. Groundwater Resources

·       432 cubic km- replenishable groundwater.

·       Ganga & Brahmaputra Basins: Contain 46% of total groundwater resources.

·       Utilization- High in northwestern and parts of southern India.

·       Groundwater supports over half of irrigated land, 20 million tube wells.

·       Around 5,000 dams, barrages, and structures built to conserve river water & recharge groundwater.

Government Measures to conserve water

·       Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Campaign for water conservation and security, focusing on water-stressed areas.

·       PMKSY: “Har khet ko pani” and “More Crop per Drop” slogans – improving water efficiency in agriculture.

·       National Initiatives: National Water Mission, Ganga Mission, Dam Improvement, Groundwater Management, Flood Control, Biodiversity Conservation, CAMPA.

·       Jal Kranti Abhiyan: Aims – transform water-scarce villages into water-surplus – through conservation.

·       National Water Mission: Focuses – water conservation, reducing waste, and equitable distribution.

·       Atal Bhujal Yojana: Promotes sustainable groundwater management with community involvement.

·       National Rural Drinking Water Program: Expanding rural piped drinking water access, improving service quality.

·       Jal Jeevan Mission: Aims – provide Functional Family Tap Connection (FHTC) – every rural household – 2024.

Best Water Conservation Practices

·       Mukhya Mantri Jal Swavlamban Abhiyan (Rajasthan): – effective water conservation – harvesting in rural areas.

·       Jalyukt-Shivar (Maharashtra): Aims – eliminate water scarcity – 5000 villages/year

·       Mission Kakatiya (Telangana): Focuses – income development – small farmers – irrigation infrastructure improvement and tank restoration.

·       High Demand – Households & agriculture – especially -population grows.

·       Agriculture Dominance – less available – industry

·       Urbanization – increases strain on groundwater & surface water resources.

·       Climate Change Impact:

·       Rising Temperatures

·       uneven rainfall distribution.

·       Droughts and Floods

·       Aquifer Depletion

·       Water Pollution – industrial waste, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers).

·       Urban vs. Rural: Urban areas see advancements in water systems; rural areas remain strained.

Water Safety Concerns

·       Surface Water Pollution: 70% of India’s surface water is polluted.

·       Wastewater Discharge: 2.9 billion gallons of untreated wastewater enter the Ganga daily.

·       Rubbish Management: Inadequate waste management, especially in cities.

·       Municipal Treatment: Only 29% of urban wastewater treated; gap expected to widen.

(Land Revenue Records)

2.      Land Put to Non-Agricultural Uses: Includes- settlements (rural/urban), infrastructure (roads, canals), industries.

3.      Barren and Wastelands: Land – cannot be cultivated with available technology (e.g., deserts, barren hills).

4.      Area Under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands: Ownership: Mostly village panchayats or government; small portion privately owned.

5.      Common Property Resources:

·       Includes village panchayat-owned land.

6.      Area Under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves (Not Included in Net Sown Area): Includes: Orchards, fruit trees; largely privately owned.

7.      Cultivable Waste-Land:

·       Land left fallow – > 5 years.

·       Can be cultivated after reclamation.

8.      Current Fallow:

·       Land left uncultivated – < 1 agricultural year.

·       Allows land to recover fertility naturally.

9.      Fallow Other than Current Fallow:

·       Cultivable land left uncultivated – >1 but <5.

10.   Net Area Sown: Physical extent of land -crops are sown and harvested.

·       Economic Growth – increases demand for land.

·       Secondary and tertiary sectors grow faster than agriculture, common – developing countries.

·       Continued high demand -agricultural land – despite sector’s declining GDP share.

·       Significant land-use changes over the past decades due to these economic shifts.

·       Physical Degradation: Erosion, soil organic carbon loss, compaction, waterlogging.

·       Chemical Degradation: Leaching, salinization, fertility depletion, acidification, nutrient imbalances.

·       Biological Degradation: Loss of vegetation, rangeland degradation, loss of biodiversity, reduction in soil organic matter.

·       Causes of Land Degradation and Desertification in India

o   Overgrazing, Deforestation, Poor Forest Management

o   Urban Growth, Industrialization, Mining

o   Natural Causes: Earthquakes, tsunamis, droughts, avalanches, landslides, volcanic eruptions, floods, tornadoes, wildfires.

o   Land Shortage, Fragmentation, Poor Economy

o   Population Increase

o   Agricultural Practices

o   Poor Irrigation and Water Management

·       Vegetative Cover Protection- tool – preventing wind & water erosion.

·       Integrated Land Use – Combine grazing & farming – enhance nutrient cycling.

·       Traditional and Local Practices:

·       Empowering Local Communities: Build capacity -manage dryland resources & prevent desertification.

·       Alternative Livelihoods: Promote non-traditional land uses – dryland aquaculture, greenhouse agriculture, and tourism.

·       Economic Opportunities: Develop – dryland urban centers & areas outside drylands.

·       Water Contamination – Release of pollutants (e.g., acid mine drainage, heavy metals) into water bodies; notable – coal mining regions (Jharia & Raniganj)

·       Rerouting rivers, groundwater pumping disrupts local hydrology – affects ecosystems and communities downstream.

·       High water consumption strains local resources; depletion observed areas – (Bellary, Karnataka).

Air

·       Dust Emissions – toxic metals – coal mining (Jharkhand & Odisha) impacts health & environment.

·       Gaseous Emissions – Smelters and equipment release pollutants (e.g., sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides); Korba industrial area – major contributor.

·       Noise and Vibrations – Mining operations disturb local communities and wildlife.

Social Impacts

·       Displacement – Eg: tribal communities (Chhattisgarh & Jharkhand)

·       Lead to disparities and dependence on mining; Eg: Bellary.

·       Cultural Impacts – Affects indigenous cultural practices tied to the land.

Wildlife

·       Habitat Destruction – concerns raised in Dehing Patkai Elephant Reserve, Assam.

·       Mining- hinder wildlife movement and ecosystem connectivity.

·       Pollution – Contaminants harm water quality and soil, affecting wildlife health.

Climate

·       GHG Emissions: CO₂, (particularly – coal sector), contribute – global warming.

·       Deforestation: reduces – carbon sequestration – worsening climate change.

·       Energy Consumption – Mining’s energy-intensive processes increase the industry’s carbon footprint.

Key Components of an EIA in India

·       Baseline Studies -Collect data on existing environmental conditions -before mining begins.

·       Impact Prediction – on environmental and social factors.

·       Mitigation Measures– adverse impacts.

·       Compliance – Ensures the project meets-environmental regulations and sustainability goals.

·       Public Consultation: Engage – local communities, stakeholders, and public.

·       Land disturbance (clearing vegetation), habitat disruption, indirect impacts (settlement, deforestation).

2. Development:

·       Environmental effects from access road construction, extensive land clearing, water and air quality issues from construction activities.

3.  Extraction:

·       Impact – Water contamination, air pollution (dust, emissions), waste management (overburden, tailings).

4. Closure and Reclamation:

·       Restoration (re-vegetation, ecosystem restoration), post-closure monitoring for environmental stability.

·       EIA: Mandatory – assessing mining project impacts.

·       Permitting – relevant authorities.

·       Monitoring – Regular compliance checks and audits.

International Guidelines and Standards

·       International Finance Corporation (IFC) Performance Standards: Guidelines for environmental and social sustainability.

·       Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) –Standards for sustainability reporting.

·       Equator Principles: Framework -managing environmental and social risks.

Case Studies

Jharia Coalfields:

Issues: Underground fires, water contamination, severe air pollution.

Kudremukh Iron Ore Mine:

Issues: Environmental impact on Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot.

·       Eco-Friendly Extraction

·       Minimize environmental disruption.

·       Waste Reduction

·       Recycling and Re-Use

·       Community Participation

·       Capacity Building: Provide training and resources for community involvement.

·       Benefit Sharing: Ensure economic benefits for local communities.

·       Technological Innovations:

·       Remote Sensing: Use of satellite and drone technology for monitoring.

·       Automation: Increase safety and reduce human impact.

·       Green Technologies: Develop and implement environmentally friendly technologies.

·       Sustainable Development: Meeting present needs, safeguarding future generations’ ability.

·       Sustainable Development Concept: Gained prominence – 1992 UN Earth Summit – Rio de Janeiro.

·       Key Outcomes: World leaders signed – Framework Convention on Climate Change and Biological Diversity.

·       Rio Declaration: Adopted for achieving Sustainable Development in the 21st Century.

·       Human Activities: Overfishing, agriculture, deforestation, and industrialization – cause environmental and social stress.

·       Gandhi’s Principle: “Enoughness” – the Earth provides enough for need, not greed.

·       Agriculture – Intensive farming degrades soil and pollutes water.

·       Forestry – Unsustainable logging reduces biodiversity and degrades forests.

·       Fisheries – Overfishing – disrupts marine ecosystems.

·       Grazing – Overgrazing – soil erosion & desertification.

·       Water Diversion: Reduces water availability for ecosystems.

·       Mineral Extraction: Causes habitat destruction, pollution, and biodiversity loss.

·       Fuel Consumption: Contributes – air pollution and climate change.

·       Industrialization: Releases pollutants – air, water, and soil.

·       Urbanization: Encroaches on habitats & increases pollution.

·       Recreation: Overuse of natural areas leads to habitat degradation and pollution.

·       Environmental Costs: Habitat fragmentation, soil degradation, pollution, and biodiversity loss.

·       Land Transformation

·       Deforestation

·       Water Depletion

·       Marine Degradation

·       Soil Degradation

·       Biodiversity Loss

·       Climate Change

Common and Private Resources

Common Resources:

·       Freely available – no specific ownership – prone to over-exploitation.

·       Examples: air, water, forests, wildlife, public properties like parks and roads.

Private Resources:

·       Owned by individuals/companies, well-maintained.

·       Examples: industries, agricultural land, homes, offices.

Types of Resources

·       Perpetual Resources: Continuously available- never deplete. Examples: sunlight, wind, flowing water.

·       Renewable Resources: Replenishable if used sustainably. Eg: fresh air, water, soil, forest products.

·       Non-Renewable Resources: Finite, deplete over time. Eg: fossil fuels, metals, sand.

·       Sustainable Use

·       Development of Sustainable Societies

·       Ethical and Moral Responsibility

Development Without Destruction

·       Energy and Resource Saving

·       Waste Minimization

·       Biodegradable and Renewable Products

·       Education and Awareness

Approaching Environmental Problems

·       Local Problems: Address water pollution – waste management- community level.

·       Regional Problems: Tackle air pollution, deforestation, & acid rain – national or regional efforts.

·       Global Issues: Combat climate change & ozone layer depletion through global cooperation and action.

Individual Responsibility

·       Conserve Fossil Fuels: Turn off lights and appliances when not in use, reduce AC, avoid unnecessary use of electrical gadgets.

·       Conserve Water: Use water efficiently, fix leaks, avoid polluting water bodies, harvest rainwater.

·       Save Trees: Reduce paper usage, recycle.

·       Keep Air Clean: Avoid burning waste, maintain vehicles, implement industrial pollution controls.

·       Reduce Garbage: Choose products – less packaging, reuse, recycle, compost kitchen and garden waste.

·       Spread Awareness: Educate others about sustainable practices.

ENVIRONMENT:3

Theme 1: Ecology and Eco-system

Theme 2: Functions of an Ecosystem, Food chains in Eco systems, Typology of eco system

Theme 3: Bio diversity and its conservation, Types of Bio diversity, threat to Bio diversity.

Theme 4: Invasive Alien Species, Threat to Bio diversity, Conservation

·       Roots in Natural History – early Indian texts – Vedas and Samhitas reference ecological concepts.

Levels of Organization

·       Individual: Single organism functioning independently.

·        Population: Group of same species – area; growth influenced by birth, death, immigration, and emigration.

·        Community: Interacting populations – different species; named – dominant plant types.

·        Ecosystem: Unit of living beings and environment; interconnected, impacts all parts if one is affected.

·        Biome: Large region – specific climate and life forms; defined by temperature and precipitation.

·        Biosphere: Global ecosystem; integrates air, water, land, with energy from the sun and recycled nutrients.

Characteristics:

·       Intermediate conditions; a zone of tension.

·       Gradient in species composition between ecosystems.

·       May contain unique species.

·       Edge Effect: Higher species diversity and density.

·       Edge Species: Abundant species in the ecotone, especially birds.

Niche

Definition: Unique role of a species-ecosystem.

·       Essential for survival, health, and reproduction.

·       No two species share the same niche.

·       Key to species conservation.

Types of Niche:

·       Habitat Niche: Where it lives.

·       Food Niche: What it eats, decomposes, and competes with.

·       Reproductive Niche: How and when it reproduces.

·       Physical & Chemical Niche: Environmental factors like temperature and humidity.

Definition: Inorganic and non-living parts of the environment (soil, water, air, light, etc.).

·       Factors: Include chemicals (oxygen, nitrogen) and physical processes (volcanoes, earthquakes, floods, climates).

Key Elements:

·        Energy: Solar energy drives life; plants use it directly, animals indirectly.

·        Rainfall: Essential for biochemical reactions and temperature regulation.

·        Temperature: Influences organism survival; tolerable within certain ranges.

·        Atmosphere: Creates conditions for a healthy biosphere.

·        Substratum: Soil and water habitats for various organisms.

·        Materials: Organic (proteins, carbohydrates) and inorganic (CO2, water) compounds.

·        Latitude and Altitude: Affect climate, which influences biomes and wildlife distribution.

Definition: Living organisms (plants, animals, microbes).

·       Categories:

·       Primary Producers (Autotrophs): Green plants, certain bacteria, and algae; synthesize food via photosynthesis.

·       Consumers (Heterotrophs/Phagotrophs): Depend on organic food from plants/animals.

Macro Consumers:

·       Herbivores: Primary consumers feeding on plants (e.g., cow).

·       Secondary Consumers: Feed on primary consumers (e.g., wolves).

·       Tertiary Consumers: Feed on secondary consumers (e.g., lions).

·       Omnivores: Consume both plants and animals (e.g., humans).

Micro Consumers (Saprotrophs/ Decomposers:

·        Bacteria and fungi; decompose dead organic matter, recycling nutrients.

·       Unidirectional flow – producers to top consumers.

·       Energy decreases -each trophic level, limiting trophic levels to 4-6.

Nutrient Cycling (Biogeochemical Cycles):

·       Movement of essential nutrients (e.g., carbon, nitrogen) through the ecosystem.

Ecological Succession:

Gradual ecosystem development, leading to a stable climax community.

·       Grazing: Plants – herbivores – carnivores.

·       Detritus: Decaying matter to decomposers.

·       Food Web: Interconnected food chains, providing multiple food sources.

Ecological Pyramids

Diagrammatic representation of trophic levels.

·        Pyramid of Numbers: Number of individuals at each level.

·       Upright: More individuals at lower levels (e.g., grassland).

·       Inverted: Fewer large producers, more consumers (e.g., forest).

Pyramid of Biomass: Total dry weight at each level.

·       Upward: Larger biomass at producer level (e.g., terrestrial).

·       Inverted: Smaller biomass at producer level, larger at consumer level (e.g., aquatic).

Pyramid of Energy: Always upright, showing energy loss at each level.

Key Processes:

·        Bioaccumulation: Pollutants enter & accumulate in organisms at the base of the food chain.

·        Biomagnification: Pollutants concentrate as they move up trophic levels, increasing in toxicity.

Ecological Succession

Succession: Directional change in vegetation over time, leading – stable climax community.

·       Primary Succession: Occurs – new, barren sites; begins – pioneer species – lichens and mosses.

·       Secondary Succession: Occurs – disturbance in an existing community; faster than primary succession.

Types of Succession:

·       Autogenic: Driven by the community itself.

·       Allogenic: Driven by external forces.

·       Autotrophic: Dominated by green plants.

·       Heterotrophic: Dominated by heterotrophs.

2.      Commensalism: One species benefit, the other is unaffected (e.g., dung beetles and cows).

3.      Competition: Both species are harmed (e.g., species competing for the same food).

4.      Predation and Parasitism: One species benefits, the other is harmed (e.g., predators and prey, parasites and hosts).

5.      Amensalism: One species is harmed, the other is unaffected (e.g., large tree shading a small plant).

·       Neutralism: No net benefit or harm to either species.

Importance: Vital for ecological balance and human survival.

Types of Biodiversity:

1.      Genetic Diversity: Variation within species; enables adaptation.

2.      Species Diversity: Variety of species on Earth; distinct genetic makeup.

3.      Ecosystem Diversity: Different habitats shaped by climate and geography.

Botanical Garden:

·       A scientifically planned collection – living plants from various regions for study, conservation, and education.

Zoo:

·       Facility for exhibiting captive animals, playing a role in species conservation through captive breeding.

2.      Species Evenness: Proportion of species at a site.

Biodiversity in Food Webs:

·        Producers: Plants – energy – photosynthesis.

·        Consumers: Animals & humans rely on plants/animals for food.

·        Food Chains/Webs: Connections b/n producers and consumers.

Indian Biodiversity Landscape

·        Realms: Palearctic, Malayan.

·        Biomes: Tropical forests, deserts, coniferous forests.

·        Biogeographic Zones: 10 zones, including Himalayas, Western Ghats.

·        Biogeographic Provinces: 25 provinces across India.

2.      Biological Services: Food, medicine, wood, genetic diversity.

3.      Social Services: Education, recreation, cultural values.

Causes for Biodiversity Loss:

Natural Causes:

·       Floods, earthquakes, landslides, rivalry among species, lack of pollination, and diseases.

Man-Made Causes:

·       Habitat destruction, commercial exploitation, hunting, poaching, pollution, and industrial development.

·        In-Situ Conservation:

Protecting species in their natural habitats (e.g., national parks, sanctuaries).

Constraints in Biodiversity Conservation:

·        Low conservation priority

·        Exploitation for monetary gain

·        Inadequate knowledge

·        Unplanned urbanization & uncontrolled industrialization.

IUCN Classification:

·        Extinct (EX): No known individuals remaining.

·        Extinct in the Wild (EW): Survives only in cultivation or captivity.

·        Critically Endangered (CR): Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.

·        Endangered (EN): Very high risk of extinction in the wild.

·        Vulnerable (VU): High risk of extinction in the wild.

·        Near Threatened (NT): Close to qualifying for a threatened category.

·        Least Concern (LC): Widespread and abundant species.

·        Data Deficient (DD): Inadequate information to assess risk.

·        Not Evaluated (NE): Species not yet evaluated.

·       Impact: Major threat – native species and ecosystems – irreversible biodiversity loss.

·       Species Richness: Temporarily increase – results -native species extinction – decrease in biodiversity.

·       Interactions: Compete – native species for resources – leading to native species decline.

Consequences

• Ecosystem Vulnerability: Weakened ecosystems, reduced ability to provide essential services.
• Ecosystem Functioning: Decline in species richness affects stability and functioning.

·       Habitat Degradation: Disruption & loss of natural habitats.

·       Agricultural Impact: Reduced crop yields and livestock health – introduced pathogens.

·       Ecosystem Harm: Degradation of freshwater and marine ecosystems.

Prevention & Conservation

·        Consumer Choices: Support sustainable practices, reduce consumption.

·        Government Action: Protect biodiversity, enforce regulations.

·        Public Awareness: Educate on biodiversity importance and threats.

2.      Black Wattle: South East Australia; rapid regrowth in Western Ghats.

3.      Water Hyacinth: Trop. America; disrupts aquatic ecosystems.

4.      Lantana camara: Trop. America; invasive in forests and waste lands.

·       Over-exploitation: Unsustainable use of natural resources.

·       Alien Species: Non-native species disrupt ecosystems and spread diseases.

·       Pollution: Harm from fertilizers, industrial waste, and plastics.

·       Climate Change: Alters species distribution and disrupts ecosystems.

·       Co-extinctions: Loss of one species leads to others’ extinction.

·       Unsustainable Agriculture: Degrades soil, pollutes water, reduces biodiversity.

·       Population Expansion: Habitat destruction and species fragmentation.

ENVIRONMENT-4  

·       Excessive addition – physical environment (water, air, land) – unfit for life.

Examples:

·       Smoke (industries, automobiles)

·       Chemicals (factories),

·       Radioactive substances (nuclear plants)

·       Sewage, discarded household items.

·       Persist in original form after release (e.g., DDT, plastic).

Secondary Pollutants:

·       Formed by interaction of primary pollutants (e.g., PAN from nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons).

·       Natural but harmful at high concentrations (e.g., CO2, nitrogen oxide).

Qualitative Pollutants:

·       Man-made, not naturally occurring (e.g., fungicides, herbicides, DDT).

·       Decomposed by microbes (e.g., sewage).

Non-biodegradable Pollutants:

·       Not decomposed by microbes (e.g., plastics, glass, DDT, heavy metal salts).

·       Originates from nature (e.g., volcanic eruptions, forest fires).

Anthropogenic:

·       Caused by human activities (e.g., vehicle emissions, deforestation).

·       Rapid industrialization

·       Urbanization

·       Uncontrolled exploitation of nature.

·       Forest fires, radioactivity, volcanic eruptions, strong winds etc.

Pollution

·       Contamination of water bodies (rivers, lakes, oceans) by pollutants from industrial and agricultural sources.

·       Affects all life forms and can have long-term effects on ecosystems.

·       2/3^rd of Earth’s surface -covered – water, totalling over 1 octillion liters.

·       Less than 0.3% is accessible for human use

·       Deforestation

·       Industrial Effluents

·       Social and Religious Practices

·       Detergents & Fertilizers

·       Agricultural Run-off (insecticides, pesticides)

·       Primary cause-including dumped plastics and industrial waste.

Ecosystem Harm:

·       Pollutants enter the food chain, harming humans and wildlife.

Scale of Pollution:

·       6 billion kg of garbage dumped into oceans annually; nuclear waste and oil spills further aggravate the situation.

·       Food Chain Disruption: Toxic substances -cadmium and lead enter the food chain, affecting higher organisms.

·       Human Health: Causes diseases – hepatitis, cholera.

·       Location: Minamata City, Japan.

·       Pollutant: Methylmercury dumped by a factory.

·       Impact: Bioaccumulation in seafood, causing neurological disorders and deaths in humans and animals.

·       Duration: Effects persisted – 36 years before being recognized & addressed.

·       Causes: Industrial effluents, religious practices, cremations.

·       Impact: Poses health risks (typhoid, cholera) and drives endangered species like the Ganges River shark and dolphin towards extinction.

·       Future Outlook: By 2026, 4 billion people may face water shortages; currently, 1.2 billion lack access to clean water.

·       Reuse and Recycling

·       Water Hyacinth: Plant -absorbs toxic chemicals- cadmium.

·       Chemical Methods

·       Reverse osmosis

·       Individual Actions: Reduce, reuse, and recycle to mitigate pollution impacts.

·       Pollutants, organic molecules, or harmful materials – Earth’s atmosphere.

Forms:

·       Excessive gases (e.g., carbon dioxide) and vapors that are not removed by natural cycles (carbon, nitrogen).

·       Directly cause air pollution.

·       Eg: Carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen oxides (NOx).

Secondary Pollutants:

·       Formed by the reaction and intermingling of primary pollutants.

·       Eg: ozone (O3) & smog (formed from primary pollutants like NOx and VOCs).

·       Respiratory Damage: Particulate pollutants harm – respiratory system.

·       PM 2.5: Tiny, harmful particles identified by CPCB; detectable only with an electron microscope.

·       Health Risks: Respiratory issues, inflammation, & pneumoconiosis (lung disease from dust).

·       Airborne particles suspended in the air, contributing to pollution.

Sources:

·       Anthropogenic: Vehicles, industries, construction activities.

·       Natural: Pollen, volcanic eruptions, natural gaseous precursors.

·       Size Range: 0.001 to 500 micrometres (µm) in diameter.

·       Presence of toxic chemicals in soil – concentrations harmful to humans & ecosystems.

·       Industrial Activity:Extraction & smelting lead – heavy metal contamination (e.g., mercury, lead).

o   Industrial effluents and byproducts – dumped untreated – soil.

·       Agricultural Activity:Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides, – soil contamination and bioaccumulation.

·       Overuse of nitrogen fertilizers causes soil acidity; excess irrigation leads to salinization.

·       Waste Disposal:Untreated waste, sewage, and open defecation – soil pollution.

·       Accidental Chemical Spills:Leaks – factories & oil spills contaminate the soil.

·       Acid Rain:Contaminants in rainwater can dissolve soil nutrients and alter its structure.

·       Natural Causes: Environmental factors can naturally create soil pollutants, e.g., perchlorates during thunderstorms.

·       Regulation: Enforce strict supervision of industrial activities.

·       Soil Remediation: Clean polluted soil using methods – thermal remediation.

·       Agricultural Practices: Reduce reliance on pesticides and fertilizers, promote organic farming.

·       Soil Quality Monitoring: Regular soil quality checks by agricultural departments.

·       Wildlife Research: Study the impact of soil pollution on wildlife near large-scale agricultural fields.

·       Containment: Cover or pave polluted soil to prevent gas emissions.

·       Afforestation: Plant trees to reduce soil erosion.

·       Persistent soil pollutants reduce biodiversity, hinder nitrogen fixation, and cause soil erosion.

·       Fertility decreases, leading to lower crop yields – potential famine.

·       Livestock – suffer – food poisoning, affecting livelihoods.

On Humans:

·       Nitrates in fertilizers – cause methemoglobinemia (affects oxygen-carrying capacity of blood).

·       Lead exposure – damage – Central Nervous System (esp: children).

·       Toxic chemicals – cause cancers, genetic changes, and other health issues.

On Ecosystems:

·       Soil pollution can lead to water and air pollution.

·       Bioaccumulation affects wildlife, and toxins can contaminate underground water sources.

·       Measurement: Sound intensity is measured – decibels (dB).

·        Thresholds:

o   Up to 20 dB: Whisper.

o   Less than 70 dB: Generally safe.

o   Beyond 85 dB: Hazardous if exposed for more than 8 hours.

·       Improper Urban Planning: Congested housing, poor infrastructure, and frequent conflicts

·       Social Events: Loud music at weddings, gatherings, and other events creates unwanted noise.

·       Vehicles and Transportation: Traffic jams, trains, aircraft, and the increasing number of vehicles.

·       Construction Sites: Activities like mining, bridge and building construction

2.      Hearing Disability: Continuous exposure to high decibel levels can damage eardrums, leading to hearing loss.

3.      Sleeping Disorders: Noise pollution can disrupt sleep cycles, leading to disorders, fatigue, and low energy levels.

4.      Cardiovascular Issues: Increased noise levels can elevate blood pressure and lead to cardiovascular diseases.

·       Sound-Proofing: Install sound-proof chambers for noisy machines.

·       Protective Devices: Provide ear muffs or cotton plugs to workers in noisy environments.

·       Acoustic Zoning: Distance residential areas from industrial zones, airports, and railway stations.

·       Silence Zones: Establish – educational institutions, hospitals, and important offices.

·       Deposition or presence of radioactive substances in the environment, making habitats unsuitable for human life.

·       Alpha (positively charged), Beta (negatively charged), and Gamma (neutral) emissions.

Prevention and Remedial Measures

·       Monitoring: Regular analysis and monitoring of radioactive pollutants in water supplies.

·       Prevention: Implementing measures to reduce anthropogenic radioactive contamination.

·       Treatment Methods: Techniques like aeration, reverse osmosis, ion exchange, and granular carbon adsorption are effective for treating contaminated water.

·       Radiotoxic Elements: Radium from uranium and thorium decay contaminates groundwater.

·       Magma: Releases radioactive gases.

·       Soil Sediments: Percolation of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) contaminates aquifers.

Anthropogenic Sources:

·       Atmospheric Deposition: Cosmogenic radionuclides deposited through natural processes contaminate surface water.

·       Nuclear Reactors and Warheads: Discharge of radionuclides like Cobalt-60 from reactors and warheads into – environment.

·       Dumping of Radioactive Waste: Medical equipment, nuclear weapons, and other radioactive elements cause water pollution when improperly disposed of.

·       Mining: Uranium and thorium mining activities contaminate water sources.

·       Nuclear Accidents: Incidents like Fukushima, Chernobyl, and nuclear submarine accidents release radioactive substances.

·       Absorption of radiation through polluted water and food leads to acute radiation syndrome and dermal injuries.

Disorders in Human Physiology:

·       Exposure to radiation causes cancer, leukemia, genetic mutations, and cataracts.

Mutation and Structural Alteration:

·       Genetic mutations – ionizing radiation cause hereditary disorders, leading to severe mental illness and premature death.

·       The rise or fall in temp of natural water bodies – human activities.

·       Causes: Discharge of hot water from industries, power plants, and other human activities like deforestation and urbanization.

Examples of Thermal Pollution

• Mississippi River: Leading – global thermal pollution, mainly from coal-fired and nuclear power plants.
• Rhine River (Europe): Impacted by emissions from nuclear power plants.
• Middle East: Desalination plants contributing to elevated seawater temperatures.

• Use of water for cooling in thermoelectric power stations (coal, nuclear, natural gas).
• Discharge of heated water back into rivers, lakes, or oceans.

Industrial Wastewater:

• Industries – refineries, mills, and chemical plants releasing hot water after cooling machinery.

Desalination Plants:

• Discharge of heated, saline wastewater into coastal areas, affecting marine ecosystems.

Urban Runoff:

• Heat absorbed by runoff from urban surfaces – roads and rooftops, increasing water temperature.

• Warm water – less oxygen, – suffocation of aquatic life – harmful algal blooms.

Increase in Toxins:

• Hot water discharges -carry heavy metals and other toxic chemicals, causing environmental and health hazards.

Loss of Biodiversity:

• Temperature changes -kill or drive away species – reducing biodiversity & disrupting ecosystems.

Ecological Impact:

• Thermal shock – sudden temperature changes – mass mortality of aquatic life and coral bleaching.

o   Utilize ponds – cool heated effluents before discharge.

2.      Cooling Towers:

o   Structures that dissipate waste heat from water, reducing thermal pollution.

3.      Artificial Lakes:

o   Man-made lakes- heated water is released and cooled before reuse.

4.      Spray Ponds:

o   Use of nozzles – spray heated water into the air, cooling it – evaporation and conduction.

·       Accumulation of plastic in the environment causing harm to plants, wildlife, and humans.

Causes:

·       Overuse of plastic due to low cost, population growth, rapid urbanization, mismanaged disposal, and long decomposition time (up to 600 years).

Microplastics

·       Definition: Plastic particles smaller than 5mm.

·       Impact: Harmful to marine life, found in human food and water, slow to decompose.

Microplastics – cause inflammation, oxidative stress, and diseases like cancer.

·        Marine Life:

Ingestion & entanglement of marine species; plastics found in seafood.

·        Food Chain Disruption:

Plastics affect tiny organisms and move up the food chain.

·        Groundwater Pollution: Chemicals from plastic degrade water quality.

·        Land and Air Pollution:

Plastics in landfills and burning plastic release toxic chemicals.

·        Economic Impact:

Costs include cleanup, tourism losses, and impacts on fishing.

·       Increase plastic bag thickness.

·       Extend rules to rural areas.

·       Implement Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR).

·       Promote plastic waste for road construction and energy recovery.

Government Measures

·       India pledges to ban single-use plastics by 2022; bans solid plastic waste imports.

·       Plastic Waste Management: Implementation of rules and EPR.

·       Reduce: Minimize plastic use.

·       Reuse: Find new uses for plastic items.

·       Recycle: Process plastic waste into new products.

·       Educate: Raise awareness and promote behavior change.

Legal Approaches

·       Policy and Incentives: Promote alternatives, impose taxes, & offer subsidies.

·       Product Standards and EPR: Educate consumers, maintain producer responsibility for plastic products throughout their life cycle.

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·       Habitat Destruction: Soil erosion, loss of agricultural land, and displacement of wildlife.

·       Water Contamination: Pollutes waterways and groundwater, altering water tables and stream flows.

·       Air and Noise Pollution: Creates dust and noise from machinery and mining activities.

·       Toxic Emissions: Releases harmful elements like arsenic, mercury, and selenium.

·       Health Risks: Introduces pathogens and parasites that affect humans and wildlife.

·       Ecosystem Changes: Affects energy flow and organic material cycling.

Waste Types:

·       Construction and demolition waste.

·       Plastic waste (e.g., bottles, polythene bags).

·       Biomedical waste (e.g., anatomical waste, medical equipment).

·       Hazardous waste.

·       E-waste (e.g., electronics like mobile phones, chargers).

·       Waste Segregation: Mandatory segregation – biodegradable, dry waste, and domestic hazardous waste.

·       Sanitary Waste Disposal: Producers – provide bags/wrappers for sanitary products – diapers and pads.

·       Collect Back System: Manufacturers – systems to collect back non-biodegradable packaging waste.

·       User Fees and Spot Fines: Introduced for waste collection, processing, and disposal; local bodies – impose fines – non-compliance.

·       Waste Processing: Biodegradable waste – treated on-premises – composting or bio-methanation.

·       Promoting Compost: co-commercialization – chemical fertilizers – city compost.

·       Waste to Energy: Industrial units must use at least 5% RDF from solid waste – 6 months of rule notification.

·       Dump Site Regulations: Specific distance requirements -rivers, ponds, habitations, and airports.

·       Hilly Area Management: Sanitary sites – hilly areas – established within 25 km in plain areas.

·       Central Monitoring Committee: Chaired – Secretary, MoEF&CC, to oversee enforcement; meets annually.

·       Integration of waste pickers & dealers into the formal system is encouraged.

Citizen Responsibility:

·       Prohibits dumping or burning waste in public spaces; emphasizes collaboration in Swachh Bharat initiatives.

Developers’ Obligations:

·       SEZs, industrial estates, and parks must allocate 5% of the area for waste recovery and recycling facilities.

Limitations:

·       Focus on centralized treatment like waste-to-energy rather than decentralized management.

·       Insufficient support for the informal sector.

·       Lack of clarity on monitoring and fees for plastic manufacturers.

·       Need for behavioural change and stronger enforcement of standards.

On Environment:

·        Environmental Interface: through manufacturing, reprocessing, and disposal, leading to air, water, and soil contamination.

·        Air Pollution: Burning wires/cables releases brominated and chlorinated dioxins, polluting the air.

·        Waste Discharge: Toxic substances – recycling – discarded improperly, contaminating groundwater and soil.

·        Dust Pollution: Dismantling releases dust – heavy metals and flame retardants,

·        Soil Contamination: Hazardous compounds -lead, mercury, and cadmium in landfills lead to soil pollution.

On Human Health:

• Health Risks: inhalation risks, and direct contact with toxins.
• Lack of Protection:
• Toxic Exposure: Burning circuit boards and wires increases dioxin levels, raising cancer risks; exposure to lead cadmium harms neurological systems, kidneys, and bones, especially in children.

E-Waste in India:

• Rising E-Waste: India generated – 10 lakh tonnes of e-waste in 2019-20, – major contributions – cities like Mumbai and Delhi-NCR.
• Informal Sector Dominance: 95% of e-waste in India – recycled informally, – harmful practices – burning or acid dissolution.Bottom of Form

·       Introduced Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) and Deposit Refund Scheme.

·       Producers can – Producer Responsibility Organizations (PROs).

·       State governments responsible – worker safety and skill development.

·       Urban Local Bodies handle orphan e-waste.

·       Enforced – State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB) and Pollution Control Committees (PCC).

·       Focus on 3Rs (reduce, recycle, reuse) and source waste management.

·       Phased out chlorinated plastic bags, gloves, and blood bags.

·       Stricter incineration standards and waste segregation into four categories.

·       Regulated by MoEF&CC, CPCB, SPCBs, and PCCs.

·       Established SOPs for hazardous waste handling and disposal.

·       Streamlined approval for disposal and import/export.

·       Co-processing for energy recovery prioritized over disposal.

ENVIRONMENT-5  

Potential (GWP)

·       Climate Change: Refers to -changes – long-term weather patterns, largely – human activities altering the global atmosphere.

·       Impact: Measured by shifts in temperature, rainfall, snow, and wind patterns lasting decades or more.

·       Recent Trends: Rapid warming – last century, esp- the past two decades; 2016 – hottest year on record.

·       Impacts: Rising sea levels – Altered rainfall patterns – Extreme weather events – melting ice caps – habitat loss – spread of diseases, coral bleaching, & loss of marine life like plankton.

Greenhouse Effect

·       Natural Phenomenon: Greenhouse gases trap heat in Earth’s lower atmosphere, making it habitable.

·       Human Impact: Increased greenhouse gas emissions upset the natural balance, leading to additional warming.

·       Major Gases: CO2 (largest contributor), methane, nitrous oxide, CFCs, and others with high global warming potential (GWP).

Human-Generated Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols

·       Greenhouse Gases: Positive climate forcing; CO2 – largest contributor.

·       Aerosols: Negative forcing; cool the atmosphere – reflecting sunlight but also impact cloud formation.

·       Examples: Methane (21 times CO2), Nitrous Oxide (310 times CO2), CFCs, HFCs, HCFCs (high-GWP gases).

Receding Glaciers

·       Glacier Loss: Significant retreat of glaciers globally, including in Glacier National Park, the Himalayas, and the Alps.

·       Impact: Threatens water supplies in dry regions (e.g., Mongolia, Pakistan) and poses a risk to global ecosystems and economies.

·       Prediction: Glaciers may disappear by 2030, with severe consequences for low-lying countries and poor populations.

·        CO2 Absorption: Oceans absorb – 25% of CO2 emissions; since the industrial era, oceans – absorbed 525 billion tonnes of CO2, increasing acidity by 30%.

·        pH Change: Ocean pH – dropped from 8.2 to 8.1, a 30% increase in acidity; could drop to 7.8 by 2100, making the ocean 150% more acidic.

·

·        Buffering Failure: Natural ocean buffering can’t keep up with rapid CO2 absorption, leading to faster pH drops.

·        Industrialization: Emissions from industries and improper land management contribute to acidification.

Chemical Reactions

·        CO2 Dissolution: CO2 reacts with seawater to form carbonic acid, bicarbonate, and carbonate ions, lowering pH.

·        Calcification Impact: Reduced carbonate ions make it harder for marine organisms to build shells and skeletons.

Effects

·        Marine Life: Difficulty in shell formation for corals, mollusks, and other calcifying organisms; potential collapse of marine ecosystems.

·        Economic Impact: Threat to fisheries and aquaculture, particularly shellfish industries.

·        Land Management: Improved land use can help sequester CO2, reducing atmospheric levels.

·        Local Adaptations: Monitoring seawater pH near aquaculture sites -adapt and mitigate local acidification effects.

Saturation Horizons

·        Depth of Dissolution: Ocean acidification raises the saturation horizon, exposing more calcifying organisms to undersaturated water, making their shells vulnerable to dissolution.

Long-term Impact

·        Carbon Cycle: Human CO2 emissions – disrupt -natural balance, – long-term shift in ocean chemistry and carbonate compensation depth (CCD), – affects carbon storage in the ocean.

Gradual thinning – ozone layer caused – human-made chemicals, (chlorine and bromine-containing compounds)

·        Ozone-Depleting Substances: Includes CFCs, carbon tetrachloride, HCFCs, methyl chloroform (chlorine-based), and halons, methyl bromide, HBFCs (bromine-based).

·        Montreal Protocol (1987): International agreement-phase out ozone-depleting substances.

·        Nitrogen Oxides: Produced – nuclear explosions, industrial emissions, and fertilizers; destroy ozone.

·        Bromine Compounds: More destructive than chlorine, used in fire extinguishers and pesticides.

·        Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs): Facilitate ozone depletion – converting stable chlorine into reactive radicals in cold regions.

Ozone Depletion in Polar Regions

·        Antarctica: Colder stratosphere allows PSCs to form, leading to significant ozone depletion, (esp. winter and spring).

·        Arctic: Increasingly affected by ozone depletion, with record losses linked to cooling of the stratosphere.

·        Terrestrial Plants: UV-B radiation affects plant growth, form, and development.

·        Aquatic Ecosystems: UV-B damages phytoplankton, fish larvae, and other marine life.

·        Biogeochemical Cycles: Alters greenhouse gas dynamics and trace gas composition.

·        Air Quality: Increased UV-B enhances ground-level ozone and related pollutants.

·        Materials: Accelerates degradation of plastics, rubber, and other materials.

·        Vienna Convention (1985): Framework for international cooperation on ozone protection.

·        Montreal Protocol: Key treaty for phasing out ozone-depleting substances.

·        Kigali Amendment (2016): Focus on phasing down HFCs, furthering ozone protection efforts.

Geoengineering

·        Concept: Theoretical approaches – cooling the Earth – injecting aerosols – stratosphere or seeding oceans with iron.

·        Plans: Ideas – artificial trees, space mirrors, and sulphur injection to mimic volcanic cooling effects.

·        Drawbacks: High costs, potential environmental risks, and ethical concerns about treating symptoms rather than causes.

·        Severe Storms and Drought: Climate change impacts atmospheric conditions, contributing to ozone depletion.

·        Ocean Warming and Acidification: Affect chemical interactions and ozone-depleting processes.

Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies

·        Carbon Sequestration: Technologies – CCS capture and store CO2 to reduce atmospheric levels.

·        Carbon Sinks: Oceans, forests, and soil act as natural carbon sinks; afforestation and reforestation enhance sequestration.

·        Carbon Credits and Offsetting: Trading systems incentivize emission reductions and support sustainable projects.

·        Carbon Tax: An alternative to cap-and-trade, taxing carbon emissions to reduce fossil fuel use.

India questions – UN’s move to declare climate change a security issue, warning it could undermine the Paris Agreement and multilateral efforts.

·        Climate Change Impact on India:

·       Vulnerability: South Asia, (including India), is highly vulnerable – diverse terrain, rapid urbanization, & resource exploitation.

·       Challenges: Environmental degradation, pollution, and socio-economic issues like poverty and food security are exacerbated by climate change.

·       Natural Disasters: Increased frequency and severity of natural disasters threaten India’s economy, health, and livelihoods.

·       Monsoon Variability: Unpredictable monsoons could lead to floods and droughts, affecting agriculture and water resources.

·        Targets:

·       Reduce emissions intensity by 33-35% by 2030 (from 2005 levels).

·       Increase tree cover to create a carbon sink of 2,500-3,000 Mt CO2 by 2030.

·       Install 5GW of offshore wind by 2022 and 30GW by 2030.

·       Generate 10GW of bioenergy and 5GW of small hydro plants by 2022.

·        Focus on Adaptation:

India prioritizes adaptation with significant emphasis on mitigation, including the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).

·        Rainfall: Regional variations -monsoon rainfall; increasing-some areas, decreasing in others.

·        Extreme Weather: More frequent severe storms, increasing drought periods, & rising sea levels.

·        Himalayan Glaciers: Melting glaciers could reduce long-term water flows, affecting agriculture and hydropower.

India’s International Commitments

·        INDCs: India targets a 33-35% reduction in GDP emissions intensity, contributing to global efforts under the Paris Agreement.

·        Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment (INCCA):

Aims – enhance science-based policymaking – assess climate impacts – suggest adaptation and mitigation measures.Top of FormBottom of Form

·        Forestry: Afforestation accelerated – the Forest Conservation Act of 1980.

·        Water Management: Emphasis – non-traditional water use methods – interbasin transfers & rainwater harvesting.

·        Coastal Protection: Restrictions on coastal development, construction of cyclone shelters, & mangrove plantations.

·        Health: Monitoring & control of vector-borne diseases, emergency medical relief, & disaster management programs.

·        National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC): Comprising missions on solar energy, energy efficiency, sustainable agriculture, & more.

·        Defined – 1987 Brundtland Report: “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Principles:

1.     Intergenerational Equity: Ensure future generations – meet -needs.

2.     Intragenerational Equity: Address disparities within – current generation.

3.     Integration of Environmental, Social, and Economic Goals: Recognize the interconnectedness of these areas.

4.     Precautionary Principle: Prevent environmental degradation -without full scientific certainty.

5.     Public Participation: Involve all stakeholders, especially marginalized communities, in decision-making.

Role of Individuals:

·       Sustainable Lifestyle Choices: Reduce waste, conserve resources, and use sustainable products.

·       Education and Awareness: Drive collective action through education.

·       Community Involvement: Participate in local sustainability initiatives.

·       Advocacy and Activism: Support policies and practices that promote sustainability.

·       Inclusive Growth: Fair distribution of economic benefits.

·       Job Creation: Sustainable employment opportunities.

·       Innovation and Infrastructure: Investment in sustainable technologies.

·       Responsible Consumption and Production: Sustainable practices by businesses and consumers.

Social Development:

·       Eradicating Poverty: Address root causes and provide support.

·       Quality Education: Access to education for all.

·       Healthcare: Comprehensive health services.

·       Gender Equality: Empower women & girls.

·       Social Inclusion: Ensure everyone – participate fully in society.

Environmental Protection:

·       Climate Action: Mitigate and adapt to climate change.

·       Biodiversity Conservation: Protect ecosystems.

·       Sustainable Resource Management: Efficient use of natural resources.

·       Pollution Control: Reduce environmental and health impacts.

·       Climate Change: A major threat that impacts ecosystems, economies, and communities.

·       Resource Depletion: Overexploitation threatens future sustainability.

·       Urbanization: Needs sustainable planning to manage growth and infrastructure.

·       Environmental Degradation: Must protect and restore natural environments.

Global Initiatives:

·        UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): 17 goals and 169 targets to address global challenges by 2030.

·        Paris Agreement: International accord -limit global warming – below 2°C.

·        Green Economy Initiatives: Focus on sustainable economic growth through green technologies.

·        Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): Businesses integrating social and environmental concerns into their operations.

·       National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC): 8 missions – promote sustainable development.

·       Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: Nationwide cleanliness campaign.

·       Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY): Provides clean cooking fuel to poor households.

·       Smart Cities Mission: Develops sustainable and citizen-friendly cities.

·       Renewable Energy: Significant strides in solar and wind power, aiming for 100 GW solar capacity by 2022.

·       Sustainable Agriculture: Promoting organic farming and conservation practices.

·       Forest and Wildlife Conservation: Afforestation programs and protected areas.

·       Water Management: Initiatives like the National Water Mission to improve water efficiency.

·        Purpose: Comprehensive assessment of greenhouse gas inventories, vulnerability, & adaptation strategies.

·        Approach: Involves research institutions, universities, government, NGOs, and private organizations.

·        Execution: Managed by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF).

·        Challenges: Requires substantial financial investment, technology access, and economic restructuring.

·        Current Status: India – 3^rdlargest global carbon emitter but – low per capita emissions.

Financial and Market-Based Initiatives

·       BSE-GREENEX: A benchmark index by the Bombay Stock Exchange – evaluating – carbon performance of stocks.

·       FAME-India Programme: Launched – 2015 – promote electric & hybrid vehicles, – a 30% subsidy to buyers.

·        Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC): Establishes minimum energy standards – new commercial buildings.

·        Mandatory Energy Audits: Large industrial consumers must undergo energy audits and employ certified energy managers.

·        Mass Transport: Expansion – Metro systems and implementation of congestion taxes to reduce private vehicle use.

·        Clean Air Initiatives: Introduction of CNG, retirement of old vehicles, & subsidies for electric vehicles.

Ecological and Adaptation Initiatives

·        Long-Term Ecological Observatories (LTEO): Multi-institutional effort – understand the impact of climate change on India’s ecosystems.

·        National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC): Estb – 2015-16 – fund adaptation projects in various sectors like agriculture, water, and forestry, managed by NABARD.Top of FormBottom of Form

·        Promotion of Biofuels: Mandates – ethanol blending & biodiesel purchase by the petroleum industry.

·        Indian Solar Loan Programme (2003): UNEP initiative to finance solar home systems in rural India.

Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA)

·        Launched: 2011 – ICAR.

·        Objective: Enhance the resilience of Indian agriculture to climate change through research and new technologies.

·        Focus Areas: Crops, livestock, fisheries, and natural resource management.