Indian Society SPMB

·        Natural Boundaries: Himalayas (north), Indian Ocean (south), Arabian Sea (west), Bay of Bengal (east).

·        Peninsular Formation: India’s landmass extends into the Indian Ocean.

Tectonic Plate:

·        Indian Plate: Separated from Gondwanaland, collided with the Eurasian Plate, forming the Himalayas.

Climatic Conditions:

·        Diverse Climate: From tropical in the south to temperate in the north; distinct monsoon season.

Biodiversity:

·        Varied Ecosystems: Deserts (Rajasthan), rainforests (Northeast), cold deserts (Ladakh), fertile plains (Ganges).

Cultural Diversity:

·        Ethnic and Linguistic Diversity: Numerous ethnic groups, hundreds of languages and dialects.

Historical and Political Identity:

·        Distinct History: From Indus Valley Civilization to Vedic periods and various empires, maintaining unique identity.

1.      Jajmani System:

o   Service Exchange: Traditional caste-based reciprocity system in villages.

2.      Dominance of Joint Family:

o   Family Structure: Extended families living together.

3.      Caste System:

o   Social Stratification: Hierarchical system influencing social interactions and occupations.

4.      Conservatism:

o   Adherence to Tradition: Rural societies are conservative, maintaining traditional customs.

5.      Primary Relations:

o   Close-Knit Communities: Based on kinship and neighborhood ties.

6.      Importance of Agriculture:

o   Economic Backbone: Major occupation, contributing to India’s GDP.

Urban Society

1.      Social Heterogeneity:

o   Diverse Population: Urban areas mix cultures, languages, and religions.

2.      Secondary Relations:

o   Impersonal Interactions: Professional and utilitarian relationships.

3.      Division of Labour and Specialization:

o   Economic Activity: High degree of specialization and diverse industries.

4.      Social Mobility:

o   Opportunities for Advancement: Improved socio-economic status through education and employment.

5.      Individuation:

o   Focus on Individualism: Personal goals over communal or family obligations.

6.      Voluntary Associations:

o   Organized Groups: Social, cultural, and recreational associations.

7.      Dynamic Life:

o   Fast-Paced Lifestyle: Constant changes and innovations shaping urban life.

·        Diversity: Major religions – Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism.

·        Unity: Secularism in Constitution; shared religious sites (e.g., Ajmer Sharif, Varanasi).

Linguistic Diversity and Unity

·        Diversity: 22 official languages, hundreds of dialects.

·        Unity: Hindi and English serve as national link languages.

Cultural Festivals

·        Diversity: Celebrations like Diwali, Eid, Christmas, Bihu, Pongal, Navratri.

·        Unity: Republic Day and Independence Day promote national pride.

Cuisine

·        Diversity: Regional specialties – thalis, tandoori, fish curries.

·        Unity: Popular dishes like biryani, samosas, chai enjoyed nationwide.

Traditional Clothing

·        Diversity: Salwar kameez, sarees, dhotis vary by region.

·        Unity: Saree worn across India, symbolizing tradition.

Art and Architecture

·        Diversity: Styles – Mughal, Dravidian, Colonial.

·        Unity: National heritage sites preserve and honor diverse architecture.

• Natural Boundaries: India’s geographical boundaries foster a sense of unity.
• Eg: Ganges River symbolizes spiritual and cultural unity, especially during events like the Kumbh Mela.

Religious and Cultural Unity:

• Shared Beliefs and Practices: Pilgrimage traditions and cultural practices connect different regions and languages.
• Eg: The participation in common festivals reflects the interfaith connections.

Political Unity:

• National Governance Structure: Aspiration for political unity unifies India.
• Eg: ISRO’s Achievements like Mangalyaan and Chandrayaan evoke national pride.

Emotional Unity:

• National Symbols and Icons: Concepts like Bharatamata create emotional ties.
• Eg: Cricket World Cup Victories unite the nation.

• Pilgrimage Sites: Promote cultural, emotional, and religious unity.
• Eg: Kumbh Mela, the largest religious gathering, brings together millions from diverse backgrounds.

Tradition of Accommodation:

• Syncretic Culture: India’s tradition of tolerance fosters harmony across faiths.
• Eg: Muharram in Hyderabad sees participation from both Hindus and Muslims.

Tradition of Interdependence:

• Economic Collaboration: Interdependence in economic activities strengthens unity.
• Eg: Agricultural Cooperatives bring together farmers across social boundaries.

• Joint Family System: Extended family under one roof, shared responsibilities.
• Nuclear Families: Increasing in urban areas due to modernization.

Hierarchical Relationships

• Respect for Elders: Elders’ decisions are followed.
• Patriarchal System: Traditional in many families; matriarchal structures in some regions like Kerala (Nairs) and Meghalaya (Khasis).

Marriage and Kinship

• Arranged Marriages: Common, though evolving; many now involve choice or love marriages.
• Kinship: Marriage seen as an alliance between families.

Cultural Diversity

• Regional Variations: Family structures differ across regions.
• Religious Influence: Distinct family practices across Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, etc.

Modern Changes and Challenges

• Globalization: Impact on traditional values.
• Women in Workforce: Changing family dynamics, more dual-income households.

Economic Factors

• Economic Support: Family provides financial help during hardships.
• Property & Inheritance: Key in family economic relationships.

·       Joint Property: Shared assets, common fund managed by eldest male.

·       Common Residence: Living together or in close proximity.

·       Cooperative Organization: Division of responsibilities.

·       Unified Religious Practices: Joint participation in rituals.

·       Economic Unit: Especially in rural families, collective labor on farms.

·       Mutual Rights: Clearly defined roles and obligations.

1. Social Security: Support for elderly, widows, and children.
2. Shared Responsibilities: Efficient workload distribution.
3. Cultural Preservation: Transmission of traditions.
4. Psychological Comfort: Emotional and psychological security.

Demerits and Challenges

1. Economic Inefficiency: Family consensus over optimal decisions.
2. Limited Freedom: Individual choices suppressed.
3. Dependency Culture: Hinders self-reliance.
4. Conflicts: Disputes over property and succession.

·        Driven by urbanization, globalization, and economic factors.

·        More prevalent in urban areas.

Reasons for Growth:

·        Urbanization: Migration to cities, smaller living spaces.

·        Job Mobility: Flexibility for job relocation.

·        Women’s Empowerment: Education and employment lead to balanced roles.

·        Autonomy: More decision-making freedom.

·        Mobility: Easier relocation and lifestyle adaptation.

·        Better Parent-Child Bonds: Focused nurturing.

·        Efficient Finances: Better resource management, improved living standards.

·        Reduced Support: Limited extended family assistance.

·        Social Isolation: Weaker community ties.

·        Parental Pressure: Balancing work and family.

·        Loss of Traditions: Erosion of cultural values

1.      Brahmins: Priests, teachers, intellectual and spiritual duties.

2.      Kshatriyas: Warriors, rulers, responsible for protection and governance.

3.      Vaishyas: Traders, agriculturists, engaged in economic activities.

4.      Shudras: Laborers, service providers, subservient roles.

5.      Dalits (Untouchables): Outside the Varna system, performing menial jobs considered unclean.

Interrelationship:

• Jati fits into the broader Varna system but is more flexible.
• Sanskritization: Process of lower Jatis adopting higher Varna practices to improve social status.

Modern Influence:

• Caste system abolished in law, discrimination illegal, but still influences politics, education, and social interactions.
• Urbanization dilutes caste boundaries but remains potent in rural areas.

·       Hereditary, based on birth, rigid with minimal mobility.

·       Endogamy and occupation-based structure.

·       Social hierarchy: High to low caste, religious sanction in India.

·       Impact: Social segregation, discrimination, and restricted opportunities for lower castes.

2.       Class System:

·       Based on economic factors like wealth and occupation.

·       Social mobility is possible through achievement, education.

·       Fluid boundaries compared to caste.

·       Impact: Economic inequality but mobility fosters aspirations.

3.       Race:

·       Based on physical differences (skin color, features), socially constructed.

·       No biological basis but deeply influential in identity, discrimination, and social interactions.

·       Impact: Prejudice, systemic discrimination, particularly in historical contexts like slavery and segregation.

• Caste: Hereditary, birth-based, religious sanction.
• Class: Based on economic status; allows social mobility.
• Race: Based on physical characteristics; socially constructed.

Social Mobility:

·        Caste: Limited or nonexistent.

·        Class: Fluid, allows upward/downward movement.

·        Race: Mobility hindered by racial discrimination.

Social Interaction:

·        Caste: Rigid, endogamy, social segregation.

·        Class: More flexible, though influenced by economic status.

·        Race: Limited by racial prejudice.

Historical and Cultural Context:

·        Caste: Rooted in South Asia, mainly India.

·        Class: Global phenomenon, prevalent in capitalist societies.

·        Race: Significant in multicultural societies like the US and South Africa.

1. Abolition of Untouchability: Article 17 eradicated untouchability.
2. Equality Before Law: Articles 14, 15 prohibit caste-based discrimination.
3. Positive Discrimination: Reservations in education, employment, and politics for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs).

Impact of Reservation:

1. Education & Employment: Improved access for marginalized communities.
2. Political Empowerment: Representation in legislative bodies for SC/ST groups.
3. Social Mobility: Access to education and jobs led to upward mobility for lower castes.

Challenges:

1.      Perpetuation of Caste Identities: Reservation policies reinforce caste identities.

2.      Limited Reach: Benefits unevenly distributed, often captured by more advantaged groups within SC/ST.

3.      Resistance: Backlash from non-reserved categories over perceived meritocracy compromise.

·        Breaking Poverty: Education improves employability and economic standing.

·        Reservations & Scholarships: Support SCs/STs/OBCs through reservations and financial aid.

Social Mobility:

·        Upward Mobility: Education allows lower castes to climb the socio-economic ladder.

·        Professional Growth: Access to professions breaks caste-based job restrictions.

Awareness & Empowerment:

·        Awareness: Educates about rights, legal protections against caste-based discrimination.

·        Empowerment: Equips marginalized groups to participate in politics and civic life.

Inter-Caste Interaction:

·        Prejudice Reduction: Schools foster relationships between different caste groups.

·        Mixed Social Environment: Encourages collaboration and mutual respect.

Improving Gender Equality:

·        Women’s Education: Education empowers women, especially in lower castes.

·        Challenging Discrimination: Educated women advocate against child marriage, dowry.

·        Historical entrenchment: Caste system over 2000 years old.

·        Cultural reinforcement: Socialized early through family and community.

Economic Disparities

·        Limited resource access: Lower castes lack land and capital.

·        Workplace discrimination: Hiring and treatment biases restrict economic mobility.

Educational Inequities

·        Poor school access: Lower castes face underfunded schools and high dropout rates.

·        Discrimination in education: Caste-based bullying hinders learning.

Political and Institutional Challenges

·        Weak policy enforcement: Corruption and ineffective implementation.

·        Caste-based politics: Exploitation for electoral gains deepens divisions.

Social Segregation

·        Residential segregation: Physical isolation limits access to services.

·        Endogamy: Intra-caste marriages reinforce caste boundaries.

Violence and Social Exclusion

·        Caste-based violence: Physical assaults and social boycotts.

·        Social exclusion: Denial of participation in community activities.

Legal and Judicial Challenges

·        Low legal awareness: Many lower castes unaware of rights.

·        Judicial delays: Biases and slow legal processes hinder justice.

·        Individuals belong to two families: Family of Orientation (birth) and Family of Procreation (through marriage).

·       Affinal Kinship: Based on marital relationships (in-laws).

·       Social Recognition: Culturally significant in determining kinship (e.g., Trobriand Islanders recognizing the husband as the father).

·       Unilateral Groups: Patrilineal or matrilineal descent (one line of descent).

·       Cognates, Agnates, Uterine Kin: Related by common male or female ancestors.

·       Descriptive Terms: Precise relationships (e.g., father).

·       Variations across cultures (e.g., Sema Naga, Kuki Clans).

·        Gotra: Mythical origin, larger than lineage, regulates marriage practices.

·        Feminal Kin: Importance of mother’s side (support, reciprocity, integration).

Social and Ritual Significance:

·        Kinship ties influence daily social interactions, rituals, and ceremonies in Hindu society.

·        Economic cooperation and shared ritual practices solidify kinship bonds.

·       Durkheim: Unified system of beliefs/practices relating to sacred things.

·       Ogburn: Attitude towards superhuman powers.

·       Frazer: Belief in powers superior to man.

·       A.W. Green: Beliefs/symbolic practices relating man to supernatural realms.

·       H.M. Johnson: Coherent system of beliefs/practices concerning supernatural order

·       Adjustment to Supernatural: Rituals like prayer for connecting with the divine.

·       Sinful Acts: Acts defined as disrupting harmony with the divine.

·       Salvation/Nirvana: Methods for liberation from life cycles.

·       Sacred Things: Belief in objects/things held sacred (e.g., cows in Hinduism).

·       Worship Procedures: Prescribed methods for worship.

·       Places of Worship: Specific places for worship (e.g., temples in Hinduism).

·       Social Control: Rules/rituals for maintaining social order.

·       Salvation: Offers paths to salvation or liberation.

·       Social Unity: Brings communities together.

·       Explains life’s purpose, suffering, death, and afterlife.

·       Emotional Comfort: Assures life has meaning and purpose.

·       Guidance: Provides ethical/moral guidance for daily conduct.

·       Adaptation to Change: Helps people adjust to societal/personal changes.

·       Identity Formation: Shapes personal and communal identity.

·       Value Preservation: Conserves moral values and societal norms.

·       Welfare Promotion: Encourages social welfare and helping others.

·       Understanding Existence: Clarifies the reason for existence and the world’s complexities.

·       Comprehensive Influence: Religion affects every aspect of rural life—family, caste, economic, and social interactions (A.R. Desai).

·       Dominance of Priestly Class: Brahmins control religious practices in rural areas.

·       Declining Influence: Modern education and scientific outlook are reducing religion’s dominance in rural life.

Religion as an Institution

·       Social Control: Religion standardizes beliefs, fostering social cohesion and integration.

·       Persistent Influence: Despite scientific growth, religion continues to play a role in both traditional and modern societies.

·       Cohesion in Sub-Groups: In modern societies, religion contributes more to specific sub-group cohesion than to the society at large.

·       Global Followers: 1.25 billion (16% of world population).

·       Vedic Foundation: Core texts include Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, forming the basis of prayers, rituals, and magic.

·       Adaptability: Hinduism evolved by incorporating diverse traditions and rites, especially homa (havan).

·       Goal: Achieving Moksha (liberation from rebirth) through righteous living, following the Law of Karma (action and its consequences).

·       Four Stages of Life: Celibate student, householder, hermit, ascetic.

·       Dharma & Artha: Balances worldly pleasures (artha) with righteous duties (Dharma) for spiritual growth.

·       Upanishads & Bhagavad Gita: Core philosophical-religious texts, emphasizing paths to salvation (knowledge, faith, devotion, action).

·       Philosophical Systems: Six systems, including Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva Mimamsa, and Uttara Mimamsa.

·       Puranas & Smritis: Later Vedic texts simplifying Vedantic principles for wider understanding.

·        Core Beliefs: Non-violence (Ahimsa), truth, non-possession, and non-stealing.

·        Goal: Liberation of the soul from the cycle of rebirth (Moksha).

·        Key Texts: Agamas.

·        Divisions: Digambara and Svetambara sects.

Buddhism

·        Founder: Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) around 6th century BCE.

·        Core Teachings: Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path to end suffering (Nirvana).

·        Scriptures: Tripitaka.

·        Major Branches: Theravada, Mahayana, Vajrayana.

Sikhism

·        Founder: Guru Nanak (15th century).

·        Key Tenets: Belief in one God, equality, selfless service.

·        Scriptures: Guru Granth Sahib.

·        Five Ks: Kesh (uncut hair), Kara (bracelet), Kanga (comb), Kachera (shorts), Kirpan (sword).

Islam

·        Arrival in India: 7th century through Arab traders.

·        Beliefs: Five Pillars of Islam – faith, prayer, fasting, charity, pilgrimage.

·        Scripture: Quran.

·        Divisions: Sunni and Shia sects.

·       Beliefs: Trinity (Father, Son, Holy Spirit), salvation through Jesus Christ.

·       Scripture: Bible.

·       Major Branches: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox.

Zoroastrianism

• Founder: Prophet Zoroaster.
• Core Beliefs: Dualism – battle between good (Ahura Mazda) and evil (Ahriman).
• Scripture: Avesta.
• Followers in India: Parsis, mainly in Gujarat and Mumbai.

Judaism

• Arrival: Ancient Jewish communities in India since 1st century.
• Beliefs: Monotheism, covenant with God, following the Torah.
• Sacred Text: Torah.

• Marriage – socially recognized, sanctioned relationship b/n two people involving legal contracts & often religious ceremonies.
• It creates emotional bonds, kinship ties, and provides a framework for procreation.

Types of Marriage

Monogamy:

• One partner at a time, the most common form globally, symbolizing lifelong commitment & exclusivity.

Polygamy:

• Polygyny: One man has multiple wives.
• Polyandry: One woman has multiple husbands (rare).
  • Fraternal polyandry: Brothers share a wife.
  • Non-fraternal polyandry: Multiple husbands not related.

Group Marriage:

• Multiple men and women live together as spouses, sharing resources and responsibilities.

Endogamy:

• Marrying within one’s social, cultural, or religious group to maintain social cohesion.

Exogamy:

• Marrying outside one’s group, promoting alliances between communities.

Types of Marriage in India

• Arranged Marriage: Families select partners based on compatibility, status, and background.
• Love Marriage: Individuals choose partners based on affection, increasingly accepted in urban areas.
• Inter-caste Marriage: Breaks traditional caste boundaries, promoting social integration.
• Same-Sex Marriage: Not legally recognized, but debates around LGBTQ+ marriage rights continue.

·       Procreation: Facilitates the bearing and raising of children.

·       Legal and Financial Benefits: Tax, inheritance, and other legal rights.

·       Social Stability: Stable family units promote societal stability.

·       Emotional and Physical Intimacy: Fosters closeness between partners.

·       Division of Labor: Roles and responsibilities within the household.

·       Cultural and Religious Significance: Symbolizes union and the continuation of traditions.

·       Long-Term Commitment: Formal commitment through challenges.

·       Mutual Support and Growth: Partners support each other’s personal growth.

·       Sense of Belonging: Provides security within a committed relationship.

·        8.6% of India’s total population (2011 Census).

·        Significant concentration – Northeast, central, southern, and western India.

Characteristics:

·        Geographical: Forest/hill dwellers; located in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Northeast.

·        Social Structure: Clan-based, egalitarian, strong community bonds.

·        Language/Culture: Linguistic diversity; rich traditions in music, dance, folklore.

·        Economic: Subsistence farming, artisanal crafts (handicrafts, textiles).

·        Religious Beliefs: Animism, syncretism (blend with Hinduism, Christianity).

·        Traditional Knowledge: Expertise in ecology, sustainable practices.

Challenges:

·        Marginalization in education, employment, healthcare.

·        Dependency on natural resources, facing displacement and resource exploitation.

·        Article 15(4): Special provisions for the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes, including STs.

·        Article 46: State promotes the educational and economic interests of STs.

Political:

·        Articles 330, 332, 334: Reservation of seats in Lok Sabha, state legislative assemblies.

·        Article 243D: Reservation in Panchayats.

·        Article 371A-371J: Special provisions for tribal regions in Northeast India.

Economic:

·        Article 244: Administration of Scheduled Areas under Fifth and Sixth Schedules.

·        Fifth Schedule: Governs Scheduled Areas; Tribal Advisory Councils.

·        Sixth Schedule: Autonomous District Councils in Northeast regions.

Cultural:

·        Article 29: Right to conserve distinct language, script, culture.

·        Article 350A: Instruction in the mother tongue for tribal children.

Service & Employment:

·        Article 16(4): Reservation in public employment for STs.

·        Article 335: ST claims considered in public appointments, maintaining administrative efficiency.

Legal & Administrative:

·        Article 338A: National Commission for Scheduled Tribes monitors ST safeguards.

Forest & Land Rights:

·        Forest Rights Act (2006): Recognizes rights of STs on forest resources for livelihood and habitation.

• Objective: Holistic tribal development.
• Focus: Education, health, livelihood, and skill development.

National Fellowship & Scholarship for Higher Education:

• Objective: Financial support for higher education of ST students.
• Components: Scholarships (undergraduate, postgraduate, doctoral), fellowships for research.

Post Matric Scholarship (PMS):

• Objective: Financial aid for ST students in post-matric studies.
• Benefits: Covers fees, allowances, book costs, and study tours.

Pre-Matric Scholarship:

• Objective: Support ST students in Classes IX and X.
• Benefit: Reduces dropout rates, encourages school education.

Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS):

• Objective: Quality education for tribal children in remote areas.
• Features: Free residential schooling (Class VI to XII).

National Overseas Scholarship Scheme:

• Objective: Support ST students studying abroad.
• Benefits: Tuition, travel, living costs for postgraduate/doctoral studies.

Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP):

• Objective: Ensure funds for tribal development.
• Focus: Infrastructure, education, health, livelihood.

Support to Tribal Research Institutes (TRIs):

• Objective: Promote tribal research and documentation.
• Activities: Research on culture, evaluation of schemes, capacity building.

Pradhan Mantri Van Dhan Yojana (PMVDY):

·        Objective: Boost tribal incomes via Minor Forest Produce (MFP) value addition.

·        Components: Van Dhan Kendras for processing, training, marketing.

Development of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs):

• Objective: Socio-economic development for PVTGs.
• Programs: Housing, education, health, infrastructure for PVTGs.

Scheme for Economic Empowerment of DNTs (SEED):

• Objective: Economic empowerment of De-notified, Nomadic, Semi-Nomadic Tribes.
• Components: Education, healthcare, financial assistance, skill development.

Minor Forest Produce (MFP) Development Scheme:

• Objective: Fair prices for MFPs collected by STs.
• Implementation: Minimum Support Price (MSP), infrastructure, marketing support.

Special Central Assistance to Tribal Sub-Plan (SCA to TSP):

• Objective: Supplement state tribal development efforts.
• Focus: Infrastructure, education, health, income generation.

Adivasi Mahila Sashaktikaran Yojana (AMSY):

• Objective: Financial aid for tribal women.
• Implementation: Soft loans via NSTFDC for income generation.

Grant-in-Aid to Voluntary Organizations:

• Objective: Support NGOs in tribal welfare.

Activities: Education, healthcare, vocational training, development.

·        Cultural Importance of Land: Land is integral to tribal customs, rituals, and identity.

·        Livelihood: Tribals rely on land for agriculture, hunting, gathering, and economic survival.

·        Social Stability: Land ownership ensures communal bonds and security.

Problems of Land Alienation

·        Displacement: Leads to cultural disintegration, social marginalization, and poverty.

·        Loss of Livelihood: Tribals lose their main source of income, worsening economic instability.

·        Cultural Erosion: Loss of land disrupts traditional practices and forces assimilation.

2. Land Alienation by External Forces

·        Definition: Transfer of tribal land to non-tribal entities like companies, governments.

·        Causes:

o   Development Projects: Dams, highways, urban expansion.

o   Mining & Industrial Activities: Exploitation of mineral-rich tribal lands.

o   Forestry Laws: Displacement due to restrictive conservation projects.

o   Illegal Encroachments: Non-tribals illegally occupy tribal land.

Magnitude of Alienation

·        Affected States: Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh.

·        Displacement: Millions of tribals displaced due to projects and industrial activities.

Causes of Land Alienation

·        Economic Interests: Companies prioritize economic gains over tribal rights.

·        Weak Legal Frameworks: Inadequate safeguards fail to protect tribal land.

·        Lack of Awareness: Tribals unaware of their legal rights.

·        Corruption: Corrupt officials enable illegal land transfers.

Case Studies

·        Niyamgiri Hills (Odisha): Dongria Kondh tribe’s resistance to Vedanta’s mining project.

·        Sardar Sarovar Dam (Gujarat): Thousands of displaced tribals facing inadequate compensation.

1.      Fifth Schedule: Protects land in Scheduled Areas; Governors can restrict land transfer.

2.      Sixth Schedule: Provides autonomous councils in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram for land management.

3.      PESA Act (1996): Empowers Gram Sabhas in Scheduled Areas to manage development plans.

4.      Forest Rights Act (2006): Recognizes forest-dwelling tribal rights to land and resources.

5.      National Policy on Tribals: Addresses socio-economic needs while protecting rights and culture.

State Government Initiatives

1.      State-Specific Land Laws: E.g., Chotanagpur Tenancy Act (Jharkhand), protecting tribal land.

2.      Land Reforms: Redistributes land to landless tribals and secures land titles.

3.      Legal Aid Services: Helps tribals reclaim alienated land.

·       Inconsistent Laws: Varying enforcement across states.

·       Economic Pressure: Tribals sell land despite legal protection due to poverty.

·       Inadequate Compensation: Displaced tribals receive delayed or insufficient rehabilitation.

·       Encroachment: Illegal occupation continues despite protections.

Way Ahead

1.      Strengthen Legal Frameworks: Ensure accountability and simplify legal processes for land reclamation.

2.      Empower Tribal Communities: Increase awareness of legal rights and strengthen Gram Sabhas.

3.      Economic Development: Promote sustainable agriculture, forestry, and handicrafts.

4.      Comprehensive Rehabilitation: Fair compensation and community-driven resettlement plans.

5.      Combat Corruption: Implement measures against exploitation in land protection laws.

6.      Research & Documentation: Conduct research on land alienation impacts and use findings to improve policies.

·        Mother Tongues: Approx. 1,652; 103 foreign languages.

·        Ancient Roots: Writing systems like Brahmi and Kharosthi (500 B.C.).

·        Current Landscape: 70,000 new titles annually; 600 million readers.

Earliest Texts

·        Vedic Literature: Rig-Veda, Brahmanas, Upanishads (~2000 B.C.).

·        Foundation of Knowledge: Ancient texts aimed to explore the unknown.

Mother Tongues and Languages

·        Estimates:

o   Grierson’s Survey: 179 languages, 544 dialects.

o   1921 Census: 188 languages, 49 dialects.

o   People of India Series: 75 major languages out of 325.

·        Ethnologue: 398 languages.

·        Census 1990s: 32 languages with 1M+ speakers.

·        Brahmi Script: 8th century B.C., basis of most Indian scripts.

·        Kharosthi Script: ~3rd century B.C., used in Gandhara.

·        Modern Writing Systems: 14 major scripts, 12 from Brahmi.

Indian States and Multilingualism

·        Population: 1.1 billion (Census 2001).

·        Administrative Structure: 28 States, 7 Union Territories.

·        Linguistic Principle: States formed based on language.

Linguistic Recognition in India

·        Constitutional Recognition: 22 major languages in 8th Schedule.

·        Jawaharlal Nehru: All scheduled languages are national languages.

·        Additional Languages: Bodo, Dogri, Konkani, Maithili, etc.

·        Sahitya Akademi: Awards for 24 literary languages.

·        Broadcasting: Radio programs in 146 languages, dialects.

·       Global Standing: Hindi is 2nd most spoken worldwide, Bengali 7th.

·       English: Predominantly used in higher education and governance.

Challenges of a Single Language

·       Educational: Lack of materials and teachers.

·       Economic Implications: English dominates global markets.

·       Linguistic Chauvinism: Concerns over Hindi dominance.

Future Recommendations

·       NEP 2020: Mother-tongue instruction in primary schools.

·       Promoting Hindi: Without coercion; balancing English for official use.

Constitutional Provisions

·       Article 29: Protects minority languages and cultures.

·       Article 343: Hindi as official Union language; English for specific purposes.

·       Article 350A: Primary education in mother tongue.

·       Article 351: Development of Hindi.

Economic Interdependencies:

·        Rural areas provide agriculture, raw materials, and labor.

·        Urban areas offer markets, jobs, services.

·        Small towns/peri-urban areas act as connectors.

Social-Cultural Linkages:

·        Migration: Movement for jobs, education, healthcare.

·        Shared festivals, cultural exchanges across rural and urban.

·        Family ties often span rural-urban settings.

Infrastructure Integration:

·        Transport: Roads, railways connect rural-urban areas.

·        Communication: Internet, mobile networks bridge the divide.

·        Utilities: Water, electricity, sanitation extend from urban to rural.

·        Integrated policies for balanced development in both areas.

Bridging the Divide:

·        Invest in rural education, healthcare to reduce migration.

·        Develop peri-urban areas as growth hubs.

Inclusive Growth:

·        Reduce regional disparities for sustainable development.

·       Aims – create urban spaces – improved infrastructure, technology, and services, benefiting peri-urban areas.

2.      Rurban Mission:

·       Focuses on developing rural areas with urban amenities, promoting economic, social, and infrastructure development.

3.      National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS):

·       Provides employment opportunities in rural areas, reducing the push factors for rural-urban migration.

4.      Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY):

·       Aims to provide all-weather road connectivity to unconnected rural habitations.

·       Urban areas often get more resources than rural regions.

2.      Infrastructure Gaps:

·       Rural infrastructure lagging behind urban standards.

3.      Migration/Urbanization:

·       Overcrowding in cities, aging population in rural areas.

4.      Policy Implementation:

·       Coordination, monitoring, and evaluation across levels of government needed.

Way Forward

1.      Integrated Planning:

·       Develop plans that cater to both rural and urban needs.

2.      Infrastructure Development:

·       Boost transport and digital connectivity in rural areas.

3.      Economic Diversification:

·       Promote SMEs and reduce agriculture dependency in rural areas.

4.      Social Development:

·       Focus on rural education, healthcare, and community participation.

5.      Sustainable Development:

·       Ensure environmentally sustainable policies and climate resilience.

·        Embraces multiple cultural traditions, languages, and customs.

·        Encourages celebration of cultural festivals and heritage.

Inclusion and Equality:

·        Ensures equal opportunities for all cultural groups.

·        Protects minority rights and combats discrimination.

Social Cohesion:

·        Promotes understanding through dialogue between different cultures.

·        Fosters a shared sense of belonging and identity.

Economic Contributions:

·        Diverse workforce enhances innovation and creativity.

·        Involves inclusion of multiple perspectives for dynamic markets.

·        Broadens perspectives through multicultural learning.

·        Prepares students for global diversity and inclusion.

Cultural Exchange:

·        Facilitates sharing of ideas, art, and traditions.

·        Boosts tourism and economic growth.

Political Representation:

·        Ensures diverse cultural groups participate in policy-making.

·        Addresses the needs of various communities.

Social Integration:

·        Integrates minority groups while preserving cultural identities.

·        Reduces social tensions through mutual respect.

·        Cultural differences may lead to conflicts.

·        Stereotypes and prejudices hinder social harmony.

Integration vs. Assimilation:

·        Balancing cultural preservation with social integration.

·        Avoiding segregation while promoting diversity.

Policy Complexity:

·        Difficulty in creating inclusive policies that benefit all groups.

Economic Disparities:

·        Addressing inequalities in access to resources and opportunities.

·       Support for festivals, museums, and education programs.

2.      Anti-Discrimination Laws:

·       Laws to combat discrimination based on race, ethnicity, or religion.

3.      Inclusive Education:

·       Multicultural curricula to promote diversity in schools.

4.      Community Programs:

·       Funding for intercultural dialogue and immigrant integration.

Way Forward

1.      Intercultural Dialogue:

·       Encourage mutual understanding through community platforms.

2.      Anti-Discrimination Measures:

·       Enforce laws to protect minority rights and promote inclusivity.

3.      Inclusive Policy-Making:

·       Ensure minority representation in policy discussions.

4.      Economic Inclusion:

·       Equal access to economic opportunities for all cultural groups.

·       Untouchability: Denied access to public spaces, education, and lived in segregated areas.

Contemporary Challenges

1.      Economic Disparities:

·       Higher poverty and unemployment.

·       Limited access to land, capital, and opportunities.

·       Mostly in low-paying, unskilled labor.

2.      Educational Barriers:

·       Lower literacy rates and educational attainment despite affirmative action.

·       Higher dropout rates due to economic pressures.

·       Discrimination in schools and poor infrastructure.

3.      Social Discrimination:

·       Ongoing caste-based discrimination in housing, employment, and public services.

·       Exclusion from temples, segregated seating, and restricted water access.

·       Persistent caste-based violence and atrocities.

4.      Health Inequities:

·       Poorer health outcomes, higher infant mortality, and limited healthcare access.

·       Challenges from economic hardship, poor sanitation, and healthcare discrimination.

• Constitutional Body: Established to protect and promote the interests of Scheduled Castes (SCs).

History:

• Article 338: Initially provided for a Special Officer (Commissioner) for SCs and STs.
• 65th Amendment Act (1990): Replaced one-member system with National Commission for SCs and STs.
• 89th Amendment Act (2003): Established separate commissions for SCs (NCSC) and STs (NCST).

Composition:

• Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson, and three Members.
• Appointed by the President with determined tenure and service conditions.

Functions:

• Monitoring constitutional and legal safeguards for SCs.
• Inquiry into complaints about SCs’ deprivation of rights.
• Advising and participating in socioeconomic development planning for SCs.
• Presenting annual reports to the President on SC safeguards.
• Recommending measures to improve the welfare and socio-economic status of SCs.

Changes in Responsibilities:

• Until 2018, NCSC also handled OBCs, but after the 102nd Amendment Act (2018), it focuses solely on SCs.

Legal Provisions:

1. Protection of Civil Rights Act (1955): Prohibits untouchability.
2. SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act (1989): Prevents atrocities against SC/STs.
3. Manual Scavengers Act (2013): Prohibits manual scavenging and ensures rehabilitation.

·       Purpose: Replaced the combined National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Tribes with two separate bodies, including the NCST.

·       Constitutional Status: Holds status as a constitutional body, emphasizing oversight on Scheduled Tribes’ welfare.

Objectives:

·       Safeguards Monitoring: Ensures implementation of constitutional, legal, and governmental safeguards for Scheduled Tribes.

·       Evaluates – effectiveness of these safeguards – socio-economic development of Scheduled Tribes.

Composition:

·       Chairperson: Rank of Union Cabinet Minister.

·       Vice-Chairperson: Rank of Minister of State.

·       Three Members: Rank of Secretary to the Government of India, includes at least one female member.

·       Tenure: Three-year term with a maximum of two terms.

·       Inquire: Complaints regarding rights deprivation.

·       Advise and Plan: Socio-economic development strategies for STs.

·       Evaluate Progress: On policies, programs, and safeguards.

·       Report to President: Annual reports on implementation of safeguards.

·       Recommend: Measures for effective protection and welfare.

·       Additional Functions: President-assigned roles for ST development.

·       Poverty Statistics: Rural poverty (2011-12): OBCs 22.6%, SCs 31.5%, STs 45.3%; urban: OBCs 15.4%.

·       Backward Classes Division: Oversees policy, programs for OBC empowerment under Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.

National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC):

·        Estb – 102nd Constitutional Amendment Act (2018).

·        Replaced – National Commission for SC/ST, created constitutional status.

·        Monitors OBC safeguards, advises socio-economic development.

·        Article 340: Defines socially, educationally backward classes.

·        Article 342A: Requires Parliament’s approval for adding/deleting communities from OBC list.

Functions of NCBC

1.      Investigate/Monitor: OBC safeguards under the Constitution.

2.      Advise: On socio-economic development, progress evaluation.

3.      Reports: Submits annual reports to the President.

4.      Civil Court Powers: Holds powers similar to a civil court.

2.      Grievance Redressal: Now handles OBC grievances.

3.      Parliament Concurrence: Mandatory for list changes, ensuring transparency.

Concerns/Issues

1.      Non-binding Recommendations: NCBC recommendations not mandatory for the government.

2.      Expert Body: Lacks expert composition as directed by Supreme Court.

3.      Backwardness Definition: Absence of clear criteria for backwardness.

2.      Caste Census Transparency: Publish caste census data and recommendations.

3.      Inclusive Representation: Ensure gender-sensitive, stakeholder representation.

4.      Value-Based Politics: Focus on genuine backward sections, avoid vote-bank politics.

·       Recognized under the National Commission for Minorities (NCM) Act, 1992.

·       Jains added in 2014.

·       Constitute about 19% of India’s population.

·       Urban: Islam (~16%), Christianity (~3%).

·       121 minority concentration districts – at least 25% minority population.

Population Breakdown (2011 Census):

• Muslims: 14.2%
• Christians: 2.3%
• Sikhs: 1.7%
• Buddhists: 0.7%
• Jains: 0.4%
• Parsis: 0.006%

·       Protects minority interests and addresses grievances.

Constitutional Safeguards for Minorities

·       Article 14: Right to equality.

·       Article 16: Prohibition of discrimination in employment.

·       Article 25-30: Rights of religious and linguistic minorities, including the right to establish and administer educational institutions (Article 30).

·       Article 347, 350A, 350B: Special provisions for linguistic minorities

·        Christians: Highest literacy and monthly per capita expenditure (MPCE).

·        Sikhs: Highest involvement in agriculture, high MPCE.

·        Buddhists, Jains: Lower population but with distinct socio-economic indicators.

Prime Minister’s 15-Point Programme for Welfare of Minorities

• Targets minority welfare in government schemes.
• Focus on education, employment, and infrastructure in minority concentration areas.

·        Women held equal status, involved in education, assemblies, Vedic studies, and rituals.

·        Decline in later periods: Disparities in rights, passive roles, polygamy, child marriage, Sati.

·        Saints of the Bhakti Movement advocated for gender equality.

·        Manu’s influence: Asserted male authority; practices like polygamy and widow burning persisted.

Vedic Age:

·        Active participation of women in rituals, choice in marriage (Swayamvar).

·        Decline in women’s position in Later Vedic Society; polygamy and Sati were prevalent.

·        Two types of women scholars: Brahmavadinis and Sadyodvahas.

·        Women participated in education (e.g., Sanghamitra, Amarkosh).

Mughal Period:

·        Lower status, purdah and child marriage common.

·        Limited movement, restricted remarriage, and polygamy.

·        Some influential women: Rani Durgawati, Nur Jahan.

·       Restrictive practices like Purdah and Jauhar introduced.

·       Active participation of women in social and political fields (e.g., Raziya Sultan, Chand Bibi).

·       Bhakti Movement and Guru Nanak advocated for gender equality.

East India Company Period:

·       Social reforms by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwarchand Vidyasagar, Jyotiba Phule.

·       Abolition of Sati, introduction of widow remarriage, and movements for women’s freedom.

·       Legislative acts: Sati (1829), Widow Remarriage Act (1856), Dowry Prohibition (1961).

Female Foeticide and Infanticide:

·       Gita Aravamundan and Anurag Agrwal studies highlighted female foeticide and low sex ratio.

·       Economic and social pressures influenced female foeticide.

Modern Period

·       Women hold significant positions in politics, defense, sports, and various professions.

·       Empowerment of women emphasized, with UN and national laws promoting gender equality.

·       Legislative acts address crimes like dowry deaths, female foeticide, and cruelty.

Empowerment of Women:

·       Focuses on self-realization, identity, and economic independence.

·       UN Charter emphasizes gender equality.

·       Questions remain on whether real-life issues of rape, dowry deaths, and declining female ratios are addressed effectively.

·        Hindu Marriage Act (1955) and Special Marriage Act (1954) govern Hindu and inter-religious marriages.

·        Separate laws for Muslim, Christian, and Parsi marriages.

·        Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act (1956) ensures valid adoptions.

Succession Laws:

·        Hindu Succession Act (1956) ensures equal property rights for daughters.

·        Muslim law based on the Quran provides inheritance rights.

·        Indian Succession Act (1925) governs Christian succession.

Immoral Traffic of Women:

·        Immoral Traffic Prevention Act (1956) targets prevention and punishment for trafficking and sexual exploitation.

Prohibition of Dowry:

·        Dowry Prohibition Act prescribes penalties for demanding dowry.

Maternity Benefit:

·        Maternity Benefit Act (1961): Article 42 ensures maternity relief under humane conditions.

·        16-week maternity leave for women.

Medical Termination of Pregnancy:

·        Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act regulates legal abortion practices with penalties for illegal terminations.

Sati Prevention:

·        Sati Prevention Act enacted to ban widow burning (1829), first regulated by Governor General William Bentinck.

National Commission for Women Act (1990):

·        Established National Commission for Women to empower and address women’s issues.

Prevention of Female Foeticide:

·        Pre-Conception, Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition and Misuse) Act (1994) combats sex determination and female foeticide.

·       Self-empowerment crucial to truly improving women’s status.

·       Social evils like female foeticide and infanticide continue in some regions, e.g., Tamil Nadu and Punjab.

Women Reservation Act (2023)

·        106th Constitutional Amendment reserves one-third of seats for women in Lok Sabha, State assemblies, and Delhi Legislative Assembly.

·        Rotating seat allocation post-census.

Committees and Reports on Women’s Reservation

1.      CSWI (1971): Reported gender inequality in “Towards Equality”.

2.      Margaret Alva Committee (1987): Led to the 73rd and 74th Amendments.

3.      Geeta Mukherjee Committee (1996): Advocated OBC reservations for women.

4.      Status of Women (2013): Suggested 50% reservation for women in decision-making bodies.

Constitutional Privileges for Women

·        Article 14: Equality before law.

·        Article 15(3): Special provisions for women.

·        Article 16: Equal employment opportunities.

·        Article 39A: Justice for both men and women.

·        73rd and 74th Amendments mandated 1/3rd reservation in local governance.

·       Their well-being shapes the nation’s future.

·       Care for children is pivotal in national policies.

UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)

·       Right to Survival: Life, health, nutrition, living standards.

·       Right to Protection: Freedom from abuse, exploitation, special protection in emergencies.

·       Right to Development: Education, social security, recreation.

·       Right to Participation: Freedom of expression, thought, and religion.

·       Focuses – comprehensive services from birth for children’s physical, mental, and social development.

·       Directive Principles: Mandate free and compulsory education and prohibit child labor in hazardous jobs.

Challenges in Child Welfare

·       Exploitation persists despite international and national resolutions.

·       Gaps in policy implementation, structural issues, and lack of awareness.

·       Child Labour Act (1986) does not regulate labor in unorganized sectors.

International Child Rights Laws

·        Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (1966), U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), etc., address children’s rights globally.

·       Article 15(3): Special provisions for women and children.

·       Article 21: Right to life and liberty.

·       Article 21A: Right to free education (ages 6-14).

·       Article 24: Prohibits child labor in hazardous conditions.

Public Interest Litigation (PIL):

·       PILs used to protect children’s rights, such as child labor cases.

Directive Principles:

·       Article 39(f): Protection of children from exploitation.

·       Article 45: Early childhood care and education.

·       Article 47: Improving nutrition and living standards.

Need for Paradigm Shift:

·       Move from bureaucratic approaches to a rights-based child development process.

·       Focus on children’s rights and needs over administrative convenience.

·        Prevalence: One in three child brides globally is in India (UNICEF).

·        Factors: Poverty, lack of education, patriarchal norms, cultural practices.

·        Statistics: Child marriage dropped from 54% (1992-93) to 33%, more prevalent in rural areas (48%) than urban (29%).

·        Legislation:

o   Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929: Prevents early female deaths.

o   Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006: Defines child as under 21 (male) and 18 (female), penalties include 2 years imprisonment and ₹1 lakh fine.

Impact of Pandemic on Children

·       Education: 42.7 million children already out of school (Census 2011), dropout rates may increase.

·       Child Abuse: 92,000 distress calls on abuse during lockdown (CHILDLINE).

·       Child Labour: Economic hardships pushing children into labor.

·       Nutrition & Health: Limited access to essential childcare services and nutrition.

India’s Ranking: 94th in Global Hunger Index 2020, categorized as ‘serious’.

Indicators:

·        Undernourishment: 14% of population.

·        Child Wasting: 17.3%, increased from 15.1%.

·        Stunting: Reduced from 54% (2000) to 35%.

Government Initiatives:

·        POSHAN Abhiyaan: Targets stunting, anaemia, low birth weight.

·        Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana: Direct transfer to pregnant women.

·        Mid-day Meal Scheme: Improves nutrition among school children.

Gender Bias Against Girl Child

·        Preference for Sons: Demographic transition worsens bias.

·        Female Foeticide: Addressed through PCPNDT Act (1994), amended in 2003 to curb sex selection.

Child Pornography

·        Definition (POCSO Act, 2019): Visual representation of children in sexually explicit conduct.

·        Law: Display of pornography to children punishable (IT Act, 2002).

·        Recommendations: Amendments to POCSO and IT Act proposed by Rajya Sabha committee.

·        Causes: Household food insecurity, illiteracy, lack of health services, unsafe drinking water.

·        Government Initiatives:

o   Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY): Incentivizes institutional deliveries.

o   India Newborn Action Plan (INAP): 2014, Targets single-digit neonatal mortality by 2030.

o   Mission Indradhanush: Vaccination coverage improvement.

National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR):

·        Established: Under Commission for Protection of Child Rights (CPCR) Act, 2005.

·        Objective: Align policies with child rights in Constitution and UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.

·        Functions:

o   Safeguard review, policy recommendations, inquiry into violations.

o   Promote child rights literacy, inspect juvenile homes, annual reporting to government.

·        Global Statistics: 600 million people worldwide live with disabilities; India reports 22 million disabled (2001 Census).

·        Causes: War, poverty, unhygienic living conditions, accidents, malnutrition, occupational hazards, and congenital diseases.

·       Aging: Health issues like low vision, arthritis, and mobility loss make elderly care challenging.

·       Societal Inclusivity: Need for a society that respects differences and ensures equal access to resources for the elderly and disabled.

·        UN Declaration on Rights of Disabled Persons (1981): Focuses on equality and protection.

·        Decade of Disabled Persons (1983-1992): Declared by UNO.

Indian Constitution:

·        Article 14: Right to equality.

·        Entry 24, List III: Welfare, old-age pensions, and labor rights.

·        Persons with Disabilities Act (1995): Prohibits discrimination in public employment and facilities.

·       Rehabilitation Council of India Act (1992): Standardizes rehabilitation training policies.

·       Persons with Disabilities Act (1995): Promotes equality, access to education, employment, and non-discrimination.

Key Provisions of Disability Act (1995):

·        Prevention: Annual screening, awareness campaigns, training for staff.

·        Education: Ensures education for disabled children until 18 years.

·        Employment: Reservation and job opportunities for persons with disabilities.

·        Affirmative Action: Provision of aids, preferential land allotment.

·        Non-discrimination: Accessible transport, roads, public buildings.

Unique Disability Identification (UDID) Portal:

• Objective: Issuing a Unique Disability ID card and creating a national database for persons with disabilities.

Right of Persons with Disabilities Act (2016):

• Replaces 1995 Act: Expands reservations in jobs (4%) and education (5%), aligns with UNCRPD.

• Accessible India Campaign: Aims to create an accessible environment for persons with disabilities.
• Deen Dayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme: Financial aid to NGOs for disabled services.
• ADIP Scheme: Provides modern aids to disabled persons.

Schemes for Senior Citizens:

• Atal Vayo Abhyuday Yojana: Umbrella scheme for elderly welfare.
• Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana: Provides assistive devices to BPL senior citizens.
• IGNOAPS: Monthly pension for elderly below the poverty line.
• National Programme for Health Care of Elderly (NPHCE): Healthcare for senior citizens.
• Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandana Yojana: Guaranteed monthly pension for retirees.

Notable Initiatives:

• SACRED Portal: Connects elderly with private enterprises for job opportunities.
• National Helpline (Elderline – 14567): Grievance redressal mechanism for senior citizens.

Vayoshreshtha Samman: Awards for outstanding contributions to elderly welfare.

·        Income Poverty: 21.9% below $1.90/day (World Bank, 2020).

·        Employment: Informal, low-paying, insecure jobs.

Health:

·        Nutrition: 35.5% of children under five stunted (NFHS-5).

·        Healthcare: Limited rural access, affordability issues.

·        Sanitation: WHO links poor sanitation to diseases like diarrhoea.

Education:

·        Literacy: 74.04% (Census 2011), with rural-urban and gender disparities.

·        Quality: Lacking infrastructure, teachers, materials in rural areas.

Social:

·        Caste-Based Discrimination: Dalits and marginalized communities excluded.

·        Gender Inequality: Barriers in education, healthcare, and jobs for women.

·        Disability: Limited access to services and opportunities for disabled individuals.

·       Poverty Line: Based on income needed for essentials.

·       Calorie Norms: Rural (2,400 cal/day) and urban (2,100 cal/day).

·       Surveys: NSSO collects household expenditure data.

2.      Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI):

·       Developed by UNDP and OPHI.

·       Health: Nutrition, child mortality.

·       Education: Schooling, attendance.

·       Living Standards: Cooking fuel, sanitation, water, electricity, housing, assets.

Comparison

1.      Income-Based:

·       Pros: Simple, widely used, historical data available.

·       Cons: Narrow focus on income, ignores other dimensions.

2.      MPI:

·       Pros: Holistic, covers multiple deprivation areas.

·       Cons: Complex, data-heavy.

·        Broader poverty definition including health, education, and consumption patterns.

Poverty Alleviation Strategy Since Independence

1.      Land Reforms:

·        Abolition of Zamindari system, tenancy reforms, land redistribution.

·        Varied success due – legal & bureaucratic challenges.

2.      Economic Liberalization (1991):

·        Market deregulation, privatization, and foreign investment promotion.

·        Boosted growth but increased inequality.

3.      Direct Benefit Schemes:

·        PDS: Subsidized food distribution.

·        MGNREGA (2005): Guaranteed 100 days – wage employment for rural households, boosting income security.

·        Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY): Financial inclusion initiative, ensuring access to banking for all households.

·        Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT): Transfers subsidies and welfare payments directly into beneficiaries’ accounts to reduce leakages.

·        Corruption & inefficiency hamper program effectiveness.

·        Lack of accountability leads to poor outcomes.

Regional Disparities:

·        Uneven growth across states, with southern and western states ahead of Bihar, UP, etc.

·        Infrastructure and investment gaps worsen inequality.

Urban-Rural Divide:

·        Higher poverty in rural areas; poor infrastructure, education, and healthcare.

·        Urban migration results in slum growth and poor living conditions.

Social Exclusion:

·        Marginalized groups (SCs, STs, OBCs) face exclusion from benefits.

·        Gender inequality limits opportunities for women and girls.

State-Level Effectiveness

·        Kerala: High literacy, effective governance, reduced poverty.

·        Tamil Nadu: Strong administration, efficient PDS, reduced infant mortality.

·        Bihar & UP: Weak governance, high poverty, poor healthcare and education.

·       Prevalence: 10.1 million children (5-14 years) engaged in labour (2011 Census); decline from 5% (2001) to 3.9% (2011); progress falls short of UN SDG target 8.7.

·       Constitutional Mandate: Article 21A ensures free, compulsory education for children aged 6-14.

·       Progress & Challenges: Decrease in child labour but insufficient to meet the 2025 UN SDG target.

·       India’s Situation: School closures, economic crises push children into labour; study by CACL reveals child labour increased from 28.2% to 79.6%.

·       Vulnerability of Orphaned Children: Orphans are prone to trafficking, exploitation, and forced labour.

·       Family Economic Crisis: 94% of children cited family pressure as the reason for working.

·       Forced Labour Resurgence: Migrant labour shortages filled by children during lockdown.

·       Child Labour Amendment Act, 2016: Bans employment of children below 14 years; restricts hazardous work for adolescents (14-18 years).

·       National Policy on Child Labour (1987): Focuses on rehabilitation for children in hazardous work.

·       Juvenile Justice Act (2000, amended 2006): Protects children in need of care, includes clauses against child cruelty.

·       Pencil Platform: Ensures effective enforcement of child labour laws.

·       Right to Education Act (2009): Mandates free education for children aged 6-14.

·       SC/ST Prevention of Atrocities Act (Amendment): Severe punishment for bonded child labour.

·       NGO Contributions: NGOs like Bachpan Bachao Andolan and Child Rights and You play an active role.

·       Anticipated Surge: NGOs predict a rise in child labour as the economy restarts.

·       Impact on Wellbeing: Disruption in education and nutrition harms child development.

·       Incoherent Legal Frameworks: Discrepancy in laws on employment age and education.

·       Diverse Forms of Child Labour: Complexity requires tailored strategies.

·       Lack of National Legislation: Absence of laws in line with global conventions on hazardous industries.

·       Informal Economy Issues: Ineffective inspections in the informal economy; 71% of working children in agriculture.

·       Prevalence: Occurs in cities, rural homes, rich and poor households, streets, and schools.

·       Underreported Domestic Abuse: Often concealed, especially when committed by family members.

·       Known Offenders: 80-85% of child rape cases involve someone familiar to the child (neighbor, community member, relative, or family).

·       Underreporting: Fear of societal shame prevents victims from reporting abuse.

·       Lack of Awareness: Some minors do not understand they are being abused.

·       Delayed Legal Resolution: Legal battles often take time, and victims may be coerced into settling.

·       Article 14: Equality before the law.

·       Article 15: Prohibits discrimination.

·       Article 15(3): Allows special provisions for children.

·       Article 21(A): Right to education.

·       Article 23: Prohibits trafficking and forced labor.

·       Article 24: Bans child labor in hazardous industries.

2.      Directive Principles:

·       Article 39(e): Secures children’s health and strength.

·       Article 39(f): Protects children from exploitation.

Impacts of Child Abuse:

• Harm to child’s health, welfare, and safety.
• Lifelong physical and psychological trauma for victims, families, and society.
• Victims are more vulnerable to mental health issues in adulthood.

·       POCSO e-Box: Online complaint system for reporting sexual offenses.

·       National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR): Ensures child rights are upheld.

·       Integrated Child Protection Scheme: Partnership with civil society to protect vulnerable children.

·       Operation Smile (Operation MUSKAAN): Ministry of Home Affairs initiative to rescue missing children.

·       Right to Education (RTE) Act: Mandates free and compulsory education for children aged 6-14.

·       Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao Programme: Aims to save and educate the girl child, promoting gender equality.

• Direct or indirect physical/mental cruelty directed at women.
• Includes rape, dowry deaths, domestic violence, and psychological harm.

UN Definition (1993):

• Gender-based acts causing harm, threats, coercion, or deprivation of liberty.
• Occurs in public or private life.

Forms of Violence:

• Criminal: Rape, abduction, murder, dowry deaths.
• Domestic: Physical, sexual, economic abuse.
• Social: Eve-teasing, foeticide, Sati.

Impact on Society:

• Causes physical, psychological, and social harm.
• Disrupts law and order, affects economic development.

• Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Duties, and Directive Principles promote gender equality.
• CEDAW ratified in 1993 for securing women’s rights.

Constitutional Provisions:

• Article 14: Equality for men and women in political, economic, social spheres.
• Article 15: Prohibits discrimination based on gender.
• Article 16: Equality in employment opportunities.
• Article 39(a)(d): Equal pay, right to livelihood.
• Article 42: Humane work conditions and maternity relief.

Legal Provisions

• Factories Act (1948): Restrictions on women’s work hours.
• Maternity Benefit Act (1961): 12 weeks maternity leave with full wages.
• Dowry Prohibition Act (1961): Bans dowry.
• Equal Remuneration Act (1976): Equal pay for equal work.
• Child Marriage Restraint Act (1976): Minimum marriage age for girls set at 18.
• Criminal Law Amendment (1983): Punishment for rape.
• 73rd/74th Constitutional Amendments: 1/3rd reservation for women in Panchayats and ULBs.
• Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005): Safeguards from domestic abuse.
• Protection Against Sexual Harassment Act (2010): Workplace protections.

Rape (Sec. 376 IPC):

• Cases: 24,206
• Increase: 9.2% (2011)
• Madhya Pradesh: Highest cases.

Kidnapping/Abduction (Sec. 363-373 IPC):

• Cases: 35,565
• Increase: 19.4%
• Uttar Pradesh: Highest cases.

Dowry Death (Sec. 302, 304B IPC):

• Cases: 8,391
• Increase: 2.7%
• Uttar Pradesh, Bihar: Highest cases.

Torture (Sec. 498-A IPC):

• Cases: 99,135
• Increase: 5.4%
• West Bengal: Highest cases.

Molestation (Sec. 354 IPC):

• Cases: 42,968
• Increase: 5.8%
• Madhya Pradesh: Highest cases.

Sexual Harassment (Sec. 509 IPC):

• Cases: 8,570
• Decrease: 14.0%
• Andhra Pradesh: Highest cases.

Importation of Girls (Sec. 366-B IPC):

• Cases: 80
• Increase: 122.2%
• Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka: Majority cases.

Crimes under Special & Local Laws (SLL)

Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act (1956):

·       Cases: 2,435

·       Decrease: 2.6%

·       Andhra Pradesh: Highest cases.

Dowry Prohibition Act:

·       Cases: 6,619

·       Increase: 27.7%

·       Andhra Pradesh: Highest cases.

Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act:

·       Cases: 453

·       Decrease: 49.4%

·       Andhra Pradesh: Highest cases.

Sati Prevention Act (1987): Cases: 1

·       Reviews constitutional and legal safeguards for women.

2.      Reservation for Women in Local Government (1992):

·       73rd Amendment: 1/3rd seats reserved for women in local bodies.

3.      National Plan of Action for the Girl Child (1991-2000):

·       Focus on survival, protection, development of girl child.

4.      National Policy for Empowerment of Women (2001):

·       Developed to promote women’s development and empowerment.

5.      National Mission for Empowerment of Women (2010):

·       Operationalized in 2011-12, aligns government interventions for women’s empowerment.

·       1946: Formation of the Commission on the Status of Women.

·       Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Established gender equality.

2.      Declaration on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (1967):

·       Adopted on Nov 7, 1967; led to CEDAW (International Bill of Rights for Women).

3.      International Women’s Decade Conferences (1976-1985):

·       Mexico City (1975), Copenhagen (1980), Nairobi (1985) raised global awareness.

·       Beijing Conference (1995): Declared “Women’s rights are human rights”.

4.      UN General Assembly Special Sessions:

·       2000: Gender equality and peace.

·       2005: Gender discrimination elimination.

5.      Beijing Platform for Action (2005):

·       Focus on poverty, environment, education, human rights.

6.      UN Commission on the Status of Women (2011):

·       Global review on gender violence.

·       Rigorous Imprisonment (RI): 7 years to life.

·       Gang-rape with death: Life imprisonment.

·       Persistent vegetative state: Minimum 20 years RI.

2.      Punishment for Other Sexual Offenses:

·       Voyeurism: Up to 7 years.

·       Stalking: Up to 3 years.

·       Acid attacks: Up to 7 years.

·       Trafficking: 7-10 years RI.

3.      Complaint Registration:

·       Mandatory registration of rape complaints.

·       Police officers failing to register or obstructing cases face penalties.

4.      Marriage Registration:

·       Mandatory registration of all marriages to prevent dowry demands and ensure free consent.

5.      Amendments to Criminal Procedure:

·       Include sexual assault on men, LGBTQ+ individuals, and disabled persons.

6.      Bill of Rights for Women:

·       Advocated for sexual autonomy and security.

7.      Review of Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA):

·       Suggested due to concerns of legitimizing sexual violence.

8.      Police Reforms:

·       Emphasized recruiting officers with integrity, and cautioned against misuse for political purposes.

9.      Judiciary Role:

·       Called for a proactive role in protecting fundamental rights.

10.   Political Reforms: Suggested disqualifying candidates facing criminal charges from elections.

·       Cultural Identity: Preservation of local languages, customs, and fear of cultural erosion.

·       Political Factors: Regional parties, lack of national representation.

·       Historical Grievances: Exploitation, historical autonomy demands.

·       Negative: Secessionist movements, internal conflicts, resource disputes, hampers national unity.

·        Economic Policies: Regional development programs, special economic zones.

·        Cultural Promotion: Regional language preservation, cultural events.

Conclusion: Addressing communalism – legal, educational, and community-based approaches to foster tolerance and unity.

·        Socio-Economic Disparities: Economic competition, social exclusion.

·        Political Manipulation: Politicization of religion, ethnic mobilization.

·        Cultural Differences: Religious practices, lack of intercultural dialogue.

·       Social Fragmentation: Erosion of trust, community segregation.

·       Political Instability: Democratic process destabilization, rise of extremism.

·       Economic Consequences: Economic disruption, security costs.

·       Education & Awareness: Secular education, public harmony campaigns.

·       Community Engagement: Dialogue, reconciliation between communities.

·       Economic & Social Policies: Inclusive development, welfare for marginalized groups.

Principles:

·        Equality: Equal treatment and non-discrimination based on religion.

·        Freedom of Religion: Right to practice or not practice any religion.

·        Separation of Religion and State: No state religion; neutrality in religious matters.

·        Political Stability: Prevents theocratic states, strengthens democracy.

·        Human Rights: Protects individual freedoms and minority rights.

·       Political Exploitation: Use of religion for political gains.

·       Social Divisions: Deep-rooted prejudices and segregation.

·       Legal Measures: Anti-discrimination laws, enforcement against hate speech.

·       Education and Awareness: Secular education promoting critical thinking.

·       Community Initiatives: Interfaith dialogue, civil society support.

Conclusion: Addressing corruption requires robust legal frameworks, public awareness, and strengthened institutions to reduce its impact and promote development.

·        Economic Inequality: Disparities leading to corrupt practices.

·        Social Factors: Cultural acceptance of corruption.

·        Political Influence: Politicians exploiting power.

·       Social Impact: Erodes trust, perpetuates inequality.

·       Political Impact: Instability, weakened policies, and organized crime.

·       Transparency and Accountability: RTI Act, public disclosure, e-governance.

·       Public Awareness: Anti-corruption campaigns, citizen participation.

·       Strengthening Institutions: Judicial reforms, capacity building, institutional independence.

Conclusion: A holistic approach involving legal, social, and economic measures is needed to resolve caste conflicts and promote social justice.

·        Economic Disparities: Unequal access to resources and jobs.

·        Social Factors: Caste hierarchy, endogamy, and social segregation.

·        Political Manipulation: Politicization of caste identities for electoral gains.

·       Economic Impact: Disruption of livelihoods, poverty, inequality.

·       Political Impact: Caste-based politics, destabilization of democracy.

·       Affirmative Action: Reservations in education, jobs, and political representation.

·       Social Awareness: Campaigns promoting harmony, inclusion in education.

·       Economic Empowerment: Skill development, land reforms, support for self-employment.

Causes:

·        Economic Factors: Low, irregular wages, lack of credit access, fragmented landholdings.

·        Social Factors: Caste, gender discrimination, limited education, poor living conditions.

·        Agricultural Practices: Dependence on traditional farming, environmental challenges.

·        Policy Factors: Inadequate labor protections, ineffective land reforms.

·        Economic Impact: Persistent poverty, indebtedness, urban migration.

·        Health and Well-being: Poor health, malnutrition, lack of safety measures.

·        Social Impact: Marginalization, exploitation, bonded labor.

Government Interventions:

·        Employment Schemes: MGNREGA for 100 days of work, special welfare schemes.

·        Wage and Labor Laws: Minimum wage laws, labor protections, social security.

·        Skill Development: Vocational training, literacy programs, modern farming techniques.

·        Land and Credit Reforms: Land redistribution, affordable credit, support for cooperatives.

·       Urbanization: Population shift from rural to urban, growth of cities, expansion of urban infrastructure and services.

Trends & Patterns

·       Rapid urban growth driven by economic development.

·       2011 Census: 31.16% urban population, expected to exceed 40% by 2030.

·       Migration: Rural-urban migration for better livelihoods, education.

·       Expansion in Tier 2 & Tier 3 cities.

·       Urban Sprawl: City expansion into suburban areas.

·        Transport: Inadequate public transport (Mumbai, Delhi), poor road conditions.

·        Water & Sanitation: Water scarcity in 21 cities by 2025, inadequate sewage systems (Swachh Survekshan 2020).

Housing Shortage:

·        Slums: 65.49 million people in slums (Census 2011), 9 million in Mumbai.

·        Government Initiative: PMAY (Urban) aims for affordable housing by 2022.

Environmental Degradation:

·        Pollution: 14 of the world’s most polluted cities in India (WHO), river pollution (Yamuna).

·        Waste: 62 million tonnes of solid waste annually, 43 million collected.

Traffic Congestion:

·        Private Vehicles: 230 million registered in 2016 (from 105 million in 2008).

·        Economic Impact: Productivity loss due to congestion (Delhi, Mumbai).

Social Inequality:

·        Economic Divide: Top 10% own 77% of wealth, bottom 50% own 2%.

·        Social Tensions: Crime, social unrest.

Health Concerns:

·        Slum Conditions: Tuberculosis, cholera, dengue prevalent.

·        Pollution: Respiratory diseases from air pollution.

·        JNNURM: Urban infrastructure and governance improvements.

·        AMRUT: Focus on water, sewerage, urban transport in 500 cities.

Housing & Slum Development:

·        PMAY (Urban): Affordable housing for urban poor by 2022.

·        Rajiv Awas Yojana: Slum redevelopment.

Smart Cities Mission:

·        Objective: Develop 100 smart cities with core infrastructure and smart services.

Sustainable Urban Transport:

·        Metro Projects: Expansion in cities like Delhi, Mumbai.

·        Public Transport: Bus rapid transit systems (BRTS).

Sanitation & Waste Management:

·        Swachh Bharat Mission: Sanitation coverage, open defecation free (ODF).

·        Solid Waste Rules (2016): Waste segregation, treatment.

Financial Inclusion & Social Security:

·        PM Jan Dhan Yojana: Access to banking for all.

·        Atal Pension Yojana: Pension for the unorganized sector.

Skill Development & Employment:

·        DAY-NULM: Skill training, self-employment for urban poor.

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):

·        Goal 11: Inclusive, safe, sustainable cities aligned with clean energy, sanitation, climate action goals.

Impact in India

Economic Impact:

·        Unemployment: High competition for jobs, underemployment.

·        Poverty: Strain on resources; uneven distribution of economic growth.

·        Dependency Ratio: Larger non-working population to support.

Social Impact:

·        Education: Overburdened system, crowded classrooms.

·        Healthcare: Strain on medical services, longer waiting times.

·        Housing: Growth of slums, informal settlements in urban areas.

Environmental Impact:

·        Resource Depletion: Water, food shortages, over-exploitation.

·        Pollution: Air and water pollution; industrial, vehicular emissions.

·        Deforestation: Loss of biodiversity, habitat destruction.

Governance & Infrastructure:

·        Infrastructure Overload: Roads, transportation, and public services strained.

·        Policy Challenges: Governance struggles with implementing services for large populations.

·        Poverty & Economic Security: Children seen as income support.

·        Infant Mortality: Families have more children to offset high infant deaths.

·        Limited Contraceptives: Poor access to family planning.

·        Early Marriage: Leads to frequent childbearing.

·        Son Preference: Families continue having children until they have sons.

Declining Death Rates:

·        Improved Healthcare: Better maternal and infant care, lower death rates.

·        Disease Control: Effective sanitation, vaccination reduce mortality.

Immigration:

·        Migration: Influx of migrants from Bangladesh, Nepal adds to population.

Government Policies & Social Factors:

·        Weak Implementation: Ineffective family planning and population control policies.

·        Religious Influence: Some beliefs discourage contraception, favor large families.

Socioeconomic Development:

·        Low Female Education: Less educated women tend to have more children.

·        Slow Urbanization: Higher rural birth rates, urban growth not keeping pace.

·        Contraceptive Distribution: Availability of condoms, oral contraceptives, IUDs.

·        Sterilization Camps: Promoted with financial incentives.

·        Awareness Campaigns: Initiatives like “Hum Do, Hamare Do.”

Education & Empowerment:

·        Female Education: Correlation with lower birth rates, delayed marriages.

·        School Health Programs: Include reproductive health education.

Healthcare Improvements:

·        Maternal & Child Health: Better care reduces need for larger families.

·        ICDS: Focus on child and maternal health services.

Economic Measures:

·        Poverty Alleviation: Economic development lowers birth rates.

·        Job Opportunities: Employment reduces economic dependency on large families.

·        Preference for Sons: Cultural norms favor larger families.

·        Early Marriages: Leads to early and more frequent childbirth.

Accessibility Issues:

·        Rural Areas: Poor healthcare and family planning access.

·        Quality of Services: Lack of trained personnel and proper infrastructure.

Economic Constraints:

·        Poverty: Limits access to education and healthcare.

·        Employment: Families rely on children for economic support.

Implementation Challenges:

·        Policy Enforcement: Weak implementation and corruption.

·        Public Awareness: Misconceptions about family planning methods.

• First in the World: India launched the world’s first family planning program.
• Key Features: Promotion of contraceptives, sterilization, family planning clinics.

National Population Policy (1976)

• Aggressive Approach: Emphasized sterilization, raised legal marriage age (girls: 18, boys: 21).
• Criticism: Coercive sterilization during Emergency led to backlash.

National Health Policy (1983)

• Holistic Approach: Integrated health and family planning services.
• Focus: Maternal and child health, reducing mortality rates, voluntary family planning.

National Population Policy (2000)

• Goals: Immediate unmet needs, medium-term target to achieve replacement-level fertility (TFR 2.1 by 2010), long-term population stabilization by 2045.
• Key Measures: Free education up to age 14, reduce IMR (<30/1000), MMR (<100/100,000), delayed marriage, improved contraceptive services.

Reproductive, Maternal, Newborn, Child and Adolescent Health (RMNCH+A) Approach (2013)

• Comprehensive Care: Targeting health across life stages (women, children, adolescents).
• Focus: Reducing anemia, strengthening health systems, promoting adolescent health.

Mission Parivar Vikas (2016)

• Focus: Addressing high fertility in 146 districts in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Assam.
• Key Features: Promotion of contraceptives, sterilization, community engagement.
• Outcome: Targeted reduction in TFR and improved maternal and child health.

• Socio-cultural Barriers: Son preference, early marriages, religious opposition to contraception.
• Healthcare Infrastructure: Poor facilities in rural areas.
• Public Awareness: Low awareness and education about family planning.
• Gender Inequality: Discrimination hinders smaller family norms.

Way Forward

• Strengthen Family Planning: Improve access to services.
• Promote Female Education: Encourage smaller family norms and delay marriage.
• Improve Healthcare: Ensure maternal and child health services.
• Economic Development: Create job opportunities, reduce poverty.
• Public Awareness: Campaigns to promote family planning and reproductive health education.

2.      Pollution: Industrial, vehicle emissions, agriculture; air, water, soil contamination.

3.      Overexploitation: Overfishing, mining, water overuse depletes resources.

4.      Climate Change: GHG emissions, global warming, sea-level rise, extreme weather.

5.      Urbanization: Habitat destruction, increased waste, infrastructure strain.

·        Biodiversity Loss: Species extinction, ecosystem disruption.

·        Economic: Livelihood loss, healthcare costs, economic damage from disasters.

·        Social: Community displacement, cultural loss, resource conflicts.

2.      Conservation: Protected areas, reforestation, species protection.

3.      Sustainability Policies: Promoting renewable energy, sustainable agriculture, and industry.

4.      Public Awareness: Campaigns, education, eco-friendly practices.

·        Sustainable Practices: Waste reduction, recycling, energy conservation.

·        Corporate Responsibility: Sustainable business practices, environmental CSR, transparency.

·        Global Cooperation: International agreements, climate action, biodiversity protection.

• Economic: Balancing growth, high cost of measures.

• Political Will: Lack of commitment, industry resistance.

• Awareness: Low public understanding, resistance to change.

• Technological: Limited green technology access, high cost.

2.      Sustainable Development: Renewable energy, green technology, sustainable urban planning.

3.      Public Participation: Education, community involvement.

4.      International Cooperation: Strengthening global partnerships, sharing best practices.

·        Preserving resources for future generations.

Inclusive Development:

·        Reducing inequalities, ensuring access to basic needs.

Economic Viability:

·        Growth mindful of resource limits, promoting responsible consumption.

Environmental Protection:

·        Conservation of resources, reducing pollution, promoting renewable energy.

·        Green Economy: Reducing carbon footprints, promoting green jobs.

·        Circular Economy: Recycling, reducing waste, minimal resource use.

Social Sustainability:

·        Education & Empowerment: Quality education, gender equality.

·        Health & Well-being: Access to healthcare, clean water, sanitation.

Environmental Sustainability:

·        Climate Action: Renewable energy, carbon emission reduction.

·        Biodiversity Conservation: Protecting ecosystems, sustainable agriculture.

Institutional Sustainability:

·        Good Governance: Transparency, accountability in policies.

·        Policy Integration: Incorporating sustainability across all policies.

·        Innovation & Technology: Sustainable tech research, clean energy adoption.

·        Community Engagement: Involving communities in sustainable initiatives.

·        Policy & Regulation: Enacting laws that support sustainability, offering incentives.

·        International Cooperation: Global collaboration on sustainability, sharing knowledge and resources.

·        Climate Change: Need for resilience and greenhouse gas reduction.

·        Social Inequality: Reducing wealth, health, and opportunity disparities.

·        Economic Constraints: Balancing growth with sustainability and overcoming financial barriers.

Examples of Sustainable Practices:

1.      Urban Planning:

·       Smart cities, green infrastructure, sustainable transportation.

2.      Renewable Energy:

·       Solar, wind, hydro power, energy efficiency.

3.      Sustainable Agriculture:

·       Organic farming, agroforestry, reduced chemical use.

4.      Waste Management:

·       Recycling, composting, zero-waste initiatives.

·        Rural-Urban: Movement to cities for jobs and better living conditions.

·        Intra-state/Inter-state: Movement within the same state or between states.

External Migration:

·        Emigration: Indians moving to UAE, US, Saudi Arabia for jobs.

·        Immigration: Foreigners entering India for work or asylum.

Forced Migration:

·        Driven by conflicts, persecution, or natural disasters.

Voluntary Migration:

·        Economic or quality of life improvements.

Temporary vs Permanent:

·        Temporary: Seasonal work.

·        Permanent: Settling long-term.

Reverse Migration:

·        Returning to the home region after migration.

·        Push: Poverty, unemployment.

·        Pull: Better jobs, higher wages.

Socio-cultural:

·        Marriage, family reunification, social discrimination.

Political:

·        Political instability, conflict, persecution.

Environmental:

·        Disasters, climate change.

Development Projects:

·        Displacement due to large projects like dams.

·       Economic growth, cultural diversity, remittances.

2.      Negative:

·       Overcrowding, environmental stress, social tensions, family separation.

Challenges of Migration

1.      Inadequate Social Security: Migrants lack access to essential services.

2.      Limited Portability of Benefits: Difficulty accessing benefits across states.

3.      Affordable Housing: Migrants face a housing shortage.

4.      Impact of COVID-19: Job loss and services disruption.

5.      Exploitation: Wage theft, discrimination.

·       Improves conditions for migrant workers.

2.      One Nation One Ration Card (ONORC):

·       Ensures food security for migrants.

3.      Affordable Rental Housing Complexes (ARHC):

·       Provides affordable housing.

4.      e-Shram Portal:

·       Tracks unorganized workers.

5.      Social Security Code:

·       Provides insurance and provident fund.

International Efforts

1.      Global Compact on Migration:

·       UN initiative for safe migration practices.

2.      International Migrants Day:

·       Celebrated on December 8 to recognize migrants’ contributions.

• Average landholding size is 1.15 hectares. Small farms make up 72% of holdings, limiting economies of scale.

Natural Calamities:

• Floods, temperature rise damaging crops, e.g., paddy in 2020-21 floods.

Declining Productivity:

• Wheat, rice yields stagnated or fell, e.g., rice yield dropped from 2,748 kg/ha to 2,436 kg/ha (2010-2020).

Rising Costs:

• Input costs rose, e.g., paddy cultivation cost increased by 50% from 2010-2020.

Inadequate Markets:

• Poor infrastructure limits market access despite reforms like e-NAM.

Lack of Credit:

• Reliance on high-interest informal credit, with average agricultural loan at Rs 56,740 in 2019-20.

MSP System Issues:

• Minimum Support Price (MSP) system often fails to secure fair prices.

Limited Technology:

• Low access to modern technologies hampers productivity.

Fragmented Supply Chain:

• Post-harvest losses due to inadequate storage, cold chains.

·        Growth dropped from 4.3% in 2019-20 to 3.4% in 2020-21.

Slowing Rural Demand:

·        Rural consumption grew at 1.4% vs. 2.4% urban growth in 2020-21.

Rising NPAs:

·        Agricultural NPAs constituted 17.4% of total banking NPAs in 2022.

Job Losses:

·        Agricultural workforce fell from 15.3 crore (2011-12) to 14.5 crore (2019-20).

Migration:

• Distress leads to rural-to-urban migration, affecting food security.

·       Annual MSP announcements stabilize prices.

2.      Crop and Livestock Insurance:

·       PMFBY protects farmers from crop losses.

3.      Agricultural Credit:

·       Kisan Credit Card provides affordable credit.

4.      Irrigation:

·       PM Krishi Sinchai Yojana improves water access.

5.      Micro Irrigation Fund:

·       Rs 5,000 crore fund promotes efficient irrigation.

6.      Market Reforms:

·       Reforms like e-NAM aim to enhance market efficiency.

7.      Direct Income Support:

·       PM-KISAN offers direct income support.

8.      R&D:

·       National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture focuses on sustainable farming practices.